Cuban Adjustment ActPub. L. 89-732Español
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All 557 notes and sources cited on the site, chapter by chapter, linked to each document.

Source priority: legal texts and official documents first (statutes, the Federal Register, court and agency decisions, federal statistics), then academic work, then reputable press. When sources disagree on a figure, the text says so and cites both.

The First Exile

  1. FIU Institute for Cuban Studies, "Chronology of U.S.-Cuba Relations," accessed November 11, 2026. https://cri.fiu.edu/us-cuba-relations/chronology-of-us-cuba-relations/ (in context)
  2. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Children's Bureau, Cuba's Children in Exile: The Story of the Unaccompanied Cuban Refugee Children's Program, 1967, foreword by Katherine B. Oettinger and John F. Thomas. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a1150f86646309098edc8_CubasChildreninExile2.pdf (in context)
  3. Ruth Ellen Wasem, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," Congressional Research Service, report R40566, June 2, 2009, p. 1. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  4. John F. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States," International Migration Review, vol. 1, no. 2, 1967, pp. 46-48. Thomas was director of HEW's Cuban Refugee Program. Digitized copy on the Operation Pedro Pan Group site: https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a1511cd3d7609f4dd31e6_1966JohnF.ThomasCubanRefugeesintheUnitedStates_0.pdf (DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3002808). (in context)
  5. Statement of Ellen Winston, HEW Commissioner of Welfare, in U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee No. 1, Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees: Hearings on H.R. 15182, H.R. 15183, H.R. 16908, H.R. 10808 and H.R. 13393, 89th Congress, 2nd session, August 10, 11 and 17, 1966, Serial No. 20, pp. 49-53. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  6. Sylvia Castellanos, "The Cuban Refugee Problem in Perspective, 1959-1980," Heritage Foundation, Backgrounder no. 124, July 18, 1980, pp. 3-6, which cites among its sources Juan M. Clark, The Exodus from Revolutionary Cuba (1959-1974): A Sociological Analysis, doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1975. https://policyarchive.org/download/8923 (in context)
  7. Bryan O. Walsh, "Cuban Refugee Children," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 13, no. 3-4, October 1971, pp. 378-415, notes 11 and 12, which cite The Cuban Migration 1959-1960 (Research Institute for Cuba and the Caribbean, University of Miami, 1967), p. 24. https://doi.org/10.2307/174929 (in context)
  8. Statement of John F. Thomas, director of the Cuban Refugee Program, in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 5), p. 58. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  9. National Park Service, "Freedom Tower," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.nps.gov/places/freedom-tower.htm (in context)
  10. John F. Kennedy, "Statement by the President Following a Conference With Secretary Ribicoff on Cuban Refugee Problems," February 3, 1961, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/234967 (in context)
  11. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Cuban Refugee Center Records (CHC0218)," finding aid, administrative and historical note, p. 4. https://atom.library.miami.edu/downloads/chc0218.pdf (in context)
  12. Pew Research Center, "Cuban immigration waves, 1950 to 2024," chart published May 7, 2026, with data on permanent resident admissions by fiscal year taken from INS yearbooks and annual reports. https://www.pewresearch.org/chart/sr_26-04-28_cubanamericans_arrivals/ (in context)
  13. Library of Congress, "1966: The Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966," in A Latinx Resource Guide: Civil Rights Cases and Events in the United States, accessed November 11, 2026. https://guides.loc.gov/latinx-civil-rights/cuban-adjustment-act (in context)
  14. Statement of Attorney General Nicholas deB. Katzenbach in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 5), pp. 30-31. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  15. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Cuba," accessed November 11, 2026. https://history.state.gov/countries/cuba (in context)
  16. Testimony of Robert F. Hale, director of the Visa Office of the Department of State, before the Senate Subcommittee to Investigate Problems Connected with Refugees and Escapees, 87th Congress, 1st session, December 6, 7 and 13, 1961, quoted in Walsh, "Cuban Refugee Children" (see note 7), note 18. https://doi.org/10.2307/174929 (in context)
  17. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States" (see note 4), appendix A, "Definition of a Cuban Refugee," pp. 56-57. (in context)
  18. Question from subcommittee chairman Michael A. Feighan and answers from Under Secretary of State George Ball in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 5), p. 10. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  19. Letter from Deputy Attorney General Ramsey Clark to the chairman of the Judiciary Committee, reproduced in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 5), pp. 8-9. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  20. Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Statement by the President on Releasing a Report on Cuban Refugee Problems," January 18, 1961, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/234969 (in context)
  21. Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Letter to Cardinal Spellman Concerning Aid to Cuban Refugees," December 9, 1960, and editorial note on the cardinal's telegram, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/234637 (in context)
  22. John F. Kennedy, "Letter to Secretary Ribicoff Requesting Him To Undertake Direction of Cuban Refugee Activities," January 27, 1961, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/236183 (in context)
  23. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States" (see note 4), pp. 48-51 and table I, "Financing of the Cuban Refugee Program." Spending figures are obligations by fiscal year. (in context)
  24. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "The Bay of Pigs Invasion and its Aftermath, April 1961-October 1962," Milestones series, accessed November 11, 2026. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/bay-of-pigs (in context)
  25. Operation Pedro Pan Group, "History," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.pedropan.org/history (in context)
  26. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962," Milestones series, accessed November 11, 2026. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis (in context)
  27. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Children's Bureau, Cuba's Children in Exile: The Story of the Unaccompanied Cuban Refugee Children's Program, 1967, p. 4. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a1150f86646309098edc8_CubasChildreninExile2.pdf (in context)
  28. FIU Institute for Cuban Studies, "Brief History of Cuban Migration," accessed November 11, 2026. https://cri.fiu.edu/cuban-american/cuban-migration/ (in context)

Operation Pedro Pan

  1. Bryan O. Walsh, "Cuban Refugee Children," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 13, no. 3-4, October 1971, pp. 378-415 (opening abstract). https://doi.org/10.2307/174929 (in context)
  2. Operation Pedro Pan Group, "History," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.pedropan.org/history (in context)
  3. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Children's Bureau, Cuba's Children in Exile: The Story of the Unaccompanied Cuban Refugee Children's Program, 1967, pp. 1-6. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a1150f86646309098edc8_CubasChildreninExile2.pdf (in context)
  4. Interview with Monsignor Bryan O. Walsh, December 3, 1998, Barry University Oral History, transcript published by Operation Pedro Pan Group. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a123a29ee03aa945ea394_Msgr.-Bryan-O.-Walsh-interview-December-3-1998-Barry-University-Oral-History.pdf (in context)
  5. John G. Hubbell, "Operation Pedro Pan," Reader's Digest, February 1988, reproduced in Operation Pedro Pan Instructional Resource Packet (see note 6), reading no. 2. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a0621d9a6b639a9d35836_Operation_Pedro_Pan_Instructional_Resource_Packet.pdf (in context)
  6. Gene Miller, "Operation Pedro Pan: Cuban Tots, a Raggedy Ann Doll," The Evansville Press, March 10, 1962, reproduced in Miami-Dade County Public Schools and Operation Pedro Pan Group, Operation Pedro Pan Instructional Resource Packet, October 2011, reading no. 3. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a0621d9a6b639a9d35836_Operation_Pedro_Pan_Instructional_Resource_Packet.pdf (in context)
  7. Testimony of Wendel N. Rollason, director of the Inter-American Affairs Commission of Miami, in the Senate hearings of December 1961, p. 159, cited in Walsh, "Cuban Refugee Children" (see note 1), note 7. https://doi.org/10.2307/174929 (in context)
  8. EcuRed, "Operación Peter Pan" [Operation Peter Pan], accessed November 11, 2026. Quotation translated from Spanish. EcuRed is the Cuban state's online encyclopedia; the article cites Ramón Torreira Crespo and José Buajasán Marrawi, Operación Peter Pan: un caso de guerra psicológica contra Cuba, Editora Política, Havana, 2000. https://www.ecured.cu/Operaci%C3%B3n_Peter_Pan (in context)
  9. "Memorandum No. 1 From the Cuba Study Group to President Kennedy," June 13, 1961, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961-September 1962, document 231. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d231 (in context)
  10. Torres v. Central Intelligence Agency, 39 F. Supp. 2d 960 (N.D. Ill. 1999), opinion of Judge Shadur, March 12, 1999, including note 4. https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/39/960/2286302/ (in context)
  11. Operation Pedro Pan Group, "Camps & Becas," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.pedropan.org/camps-becas (in context)
  12. Barry University Archives and Special Collections, "Monsignor Bryan O. Walsh Papers" (ASC0001), collection guide, accessed November 11, 2026. https://eguides.barry.edu/c.php?g=287071&p=1912060 (in context)
  13. Marjorie L. Donohoue, "Operation Pedro Pan: How thousands of children shuffled under Castro's nose," The Miami Voice, March 3, 1978, reproduced in Operation Pedro Pan Instructional Resource Packet (see note 6), reading no. 1. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a0621d9a6b639a9d35836_Operation_Pedro_Pan_Instructional_Resource_Packet.pdf (in context)
  14. John F. Kennedy, "Statement by the President Following a Conference With Secretary Ribicoff on Cuban Refugee Problems," February 3, 1961, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/234967 (in context)
  15. Operation Pedro Pan Group, "Resources," with the list of digitized primary sources, among them Gene Miller's article in The Miami Herald of March 9, 1962, accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.pedropan.org/resources (in context)
  16. FIU Institute for Cuban Studies, "Chronology of U.S.-Cuba Relations," accessed November 11, 2026. https://cri.fiu.edu/us-cuba-relations/chronology-of-us-cuba-relations/ (in context)
  17. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Cuban Refugee Center Records (CHC0218)," finding aid, subseries "Unaccompanied Cuban Children's Program." https://atom.library.miami.edu/downloads/chc0218.pdf (in context)

The Closed-Door Years

  1. John F. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States," International Migration Review, vol. 1, no. 2, 1967, p. 47. Thomas was director of HEW's Cuban Refugee Program. Digitized copy on the Operation Pedro Pan Group site: https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a1511cd3d7609f4dd31e6_1966JohnF.ThomasCubanRefugeesintheUnitedStates_0.pdf (DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3002808). (in context)
  2. Statement of Ellen Winston, HEW Commissioner of Welfare, in U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee No. 1, Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees: Hearings on H.R. 15182, H.R. 15183, H.R. 16908, H.R. 10808 and H.R. 13393, 89th Congress, 2nd session, August 10, 11 and 17, 1966, Serial No. 20, pp. 50-51. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  3. Ruth Ellen Wasem, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," Congressional Research Service, report R40566, June 2, 2009, p. 1. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  4. "Memorandum for the Files," Washington, January 26, 1963, on Donovan's January 25 meeting with Castro, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, vol. XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, document 275. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d275 (in context)
  5. FIU Institute for Cuban Studies, "Chronology of U.S.-Cuba Relations," accessed November 11, 2026. https://cri.fiu.edu/us-cuba-relations/chronology-of-us-cuba-relations/ (in context)
  6. "Circular Telegram to All Latin American Posts," Washington, December 22, 1962, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, vol. XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, document 255. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d255 (in context)
  7. John F. Kennedy, "Remarks in Miami at the Presentation of the Flag of the Cuban Invasion Brigade," December 29, 1962, with editorial note, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/236821 (in context)
  8. Letter from the Department of State to the chairman of Subcommittee No. 1, Michael A. Feighan, August 19, 1966, reproduced in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 2), p. 72. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  9. Sylvia Castellanos, "The Cuban Refugee Problem in Perspective, 1959-1980," Heritage Foundation, Backgrounder no. 124, July 18, 1980, pp. 3-4 and 11-12, which cites among its sources Juan M. Clark, The Exodus from Revolutionary Cuba (1959-1974): A Sociological Analysis, doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1975. https://policyarchive.org/download/8923 (in context)
  10. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Children's Bureau, Cuba's Children in Exile: The Story of the Unaccompanied Cuban Refugee Children's Program, 1967, p. 4. https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6007cfcbaf10177efef718a2/600a1150f86646309098edc8_CubasChildreninExile2.pdf (in context)
  11. Answers of Under Secretary of State George Ball and table "Estimated Cuban refugees in other countries," in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 2), pp. 14-16. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  12. Statement of John F. Thomas, director of the Cuban Refugee Program, in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 2), pp. 58-59. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  13. Pew Research Center, "Cuban immigration waves, 1950 to 2024," chart published May 7, 2026, with data on permanent resident admissions by fiscal year taken from INS yearbooks and annual reports; figures rounded to the nearest hundred. https://www.pewresearch.org/chart/sr_26-04-28_cubanamericans_arrivals/ (in context)
  14. Statement and answers of Attorney General Nicholas deB. Katzenbach in Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees (see note 2), pp. 30-34. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  15. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States" (see note 1), pp. 50-51. (in context)
  16. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States" (see note 1), p. 49, table I, "Financing of the Cuban Refugee Program," and p. 52, table III, "Geographical Distribution of Resettled Cuban Refugees." Spending figures are obligations by fiscal year. (in context)
  17. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Cuban Refugee Center Records (CHC0218)," finding aid, administrative and historical note, p. 4. https://atom.library.miami.edu/downloads/chc0218.pdf (in context)
  18. UCLA School of Law, Center for Immigration Law and Policy, "A Timeline of Parole Under Immigration Law," accessed November 11, 2026. https://law.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/PDFs/Center_for_Immigration_Law_and_Policy/A_Timeline_of_Parole_Under_Immigration_Law.pdf (in context)
  19. Thomas, "Cuban Refugees in the United States" (see note 1), appendix A, "Definition of a Cuban Refugee," pp. 56-57. (in context)

Camarioca and the Freedom Flights

  1. Fidel Castro Ruz, "Discurso pronunciado [...] resumiendo los actos del V aniversario de los Comités de Defensa de la Revolución, en la concentración efectuada en la Plaza de la Revolución, el 28 de septiembre de 1965" [Speech summing up the events of the fifth anniversary of the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, at the rally held in the Plaza of the Revolution, September 28, 1965], Departamento de Versiones Taquigráficas del Gobierno Revolucionario, accessed November 11, 2026. Quotations translated from Spanish. http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/discursos/1965/esp/f280965e.html (in context)
  2. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XXXII, document 308, "Editorial Note" (includes the memoranda from McGeorge Bundy of October 6 and 14, 1965 and the total figure from Research Memorandum No. 1230, May 20, 1980). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v32/d308 (in context)
  3. Congressional Record, vol. 112, part 17, September 19, 1966, p. 22914 (remarks of Representative Michael A. Feighan). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt17/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt17-5-1.pdf (in context)
  4. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks at the Signing of the Immigration Bill, Liberty Island, New York," October 3, 1965, The American Presidency Project (UCSB), with an editorial note on the first arrivals by sea. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/241316 (in context)
  5. U.S. Department of Justice, Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, fiscal year 1966, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1966_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  6. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Exodus from Cuba," in the digital exhibit In Search of Freedom: Cuban Exiles and the U.S. Cuban Refugee Program, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/freedom/exodus (in context)
  7. U.S. Coast Guard, Historian's Office, "The 'Other' Boatlift: Camarioca, Cuba, 1965," published by the Department of Defense (consulted in the Internet Archive copy on November 11, 2026). https://media.defense.gov/2020/Jul/02/2002356759/0/0/0/CAMARIOCA1965.PDF (in context)
  8. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Statement by the President on the Agreement Covering Movement of Cuban Refugees to the United States," November 6, 1965, The American Presidency Project (UCSB). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/241090 (in context)
  9. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XXXII, document 309, memorandum from Walt Rostow to President Johnson, May 25, 1966. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v32/d309 (in context)
  10. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1969, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1969_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  11. Thomas B. Reston, "Cuba's Refugees," The Harvard Crimson, December 18, 1967. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1967/12/18/cubas-refugees-pthe-old-american-embassy/ (in context)
  12. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-10, document 205, study in response to National Security Study Memorandum 32 on Cuba, July 2, 1969. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve10/d205 (in context)
  13. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1967, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1967_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  14. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1968, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1968_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  15. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1970 Annual Report, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1970_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  16. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1971, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1971_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  17. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1972, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1972_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  18. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1973, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1973_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  19. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 4, memorandum from Terence Todman to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, February 22, 1977. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d4 (in context)
  20. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Statement by the President Upon Directing the Waiver of Permanent Resident Application Fees for Cuban Refugees," November 10, 1966, The American Presidency Project (UCSB). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/238423 (in context)
  21. Ralph Rewes, "The Dreadful Procedure of Leaving Cuba Legally" (personal account from 1968, published online), accessed November 11, 2026. https://amigospais-guaracabuya.org/oagrr003.php (in context)
  22. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-10, document 207, National Intelligence Estimate 85-69, September 2, 1969. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve10/d207 (in context)
  23. University of Miami Libraries, "Arrival in Florida," in In Search of Freedom: Cuban Exiles and the U.S. Cuban Refugee Program, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/freedom/arrival (in context)
  24. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee No. 1, Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees: Hearings on H.R. 15182, H.R. 15183, H.R. 16908, H.R. 10808 and H.R. 13393, 89th Congress, 2nd Session, August 10, 11 and 17, 1966, testimony of Ellen Winston, pp. 50-51 and 59. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  25. University of Miami Libraries, "Resettlement," in In Search of Freedom: Cuban Exiles and the U.S. Cuban Refugee Program, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/freedom/resettlement (in context)
  26. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-10, document 243, memorandum from Henry Kissinger to President Nixon, "Termination of Cuban Refugee Airlift," September 2, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve10/d243 (in context)

The Birth of the Cuban Adjustment Act

  1. An Act to adjust the status of Cuban refugees to that of lawful permanent residents of the United States, and for other purposes, Public Law 89-732 (H.R. 15183), November 2, 1966, 80 Stat. 1161. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-80/pdf/STATUTE-80-Pg1161.pdf (in context)
  2. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Statement by the President Upon Directing the Waiver of Permanent Resident Application Fees for Cuban Refugees," November 10, 1966, The American Presidency Project (UCSB). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/238423 (in context)
  3. Congressional Record, vol. 112, part 17, September 19, 1966, pp. 22913-22922 (debate and vote on H.R. 15183; remarks of Michael A. Feighan, William F. Ryan, Jacob H. Gilbert and Representative Haley of Florida, among others). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt17/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt17-5-1.pdf (in context)
  4. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee No. 1, Adjustment of Status for Cuban Refugees: Hearings on H.R. 15182, H.R. 15183, H.R. 16908, H.R. 10808 and H.R. 13393, 89th Congress, 2nd Session, August 10, 11 and 17, 1966, Serial No. 20, pp. 5, 7-10 and 17 (statement of George W. Ball and Department of Justice report). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-89hhrg67905/pdf/CHRG-89hhrg67905.pdf (in context)
  5. Congressional Record, vol. 112, part 19, October 6, 1966, pp. 25466-25468 (debate on S. 3712 and Senate passage of H.R. 15183; remarks of Edward M. Kennedy, Philip A. Hart, Jacob K. Javits, Sam J. Ervin and Mike Mansfield). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt19/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt19-2-1.pdf (in context)
  6. 8 U.S.C. § 1101(b)(5), definition of "adjacent islands," Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1101 (in context)
  7. Congressional Record, vol. 112, part 23, 1966 Daily Digest, entries for August 10, 11, 16 and 17, September 1 and 19, and October 4, 6, 7, 13, 19, 20 and 21, 1966, and the table of bill histories for measures passed (H.R. 15183). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt23/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt23-1-13.pdf (in context)
  8. Congressional Record, vol. 112, part 21, October 21, 1966, pp. 28605-28609 (conference report H. Rept. No. 2334, statement of the House managers and remarks of Gilbert, Moore and Feighan). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt21/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1966-pt21-2-2.pdf (in context)
  9. U.S. Department of Justice, Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, fiscal year 1967, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1967_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  10. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1968, section "Cuban Adjustment." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1968_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  11. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1969, sections "Cuban Refugees" and "Cuban Adjustments." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1969_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  12. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1970 Annual Report, section "Cuban Adjustments" and table 4. Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1970_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  13. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1972, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1972_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  14. Public Law 94-571, October 20, 1976, sections 8 and 10, 90 Stat. 2703, 2706-2707, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg2703.pdf; Public Law 96-212 (Refugee Act of 1980), section 203(i), 94 Stat. 102, 108, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg102.pdf; and Congressional Research Service, Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends, report R40566, June 2, 2009, p. 2, note 6. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  15. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1978, section "Cuban Adjustments" (with the effective date of the 1976 reforms). Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1978_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)

Dialogue and Reunion

  1. U.S. Department of Justice, Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, fiscal year 1973, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1973_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  2. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1974, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1974_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  3. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1975, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1975_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  4. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1976, section "Cuban Refugees." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1976_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  5. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1977, section "Conditional Entry." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1977_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  6. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-10, document 207, National Intelligence Estimate 85-69, September 2, 1969. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve10/d207 (in context)
  7. Human Rights Watch, Familias deshechas: el costo humano de las restricciones de Estados Unidos y Cuba sobre los viajes [Families torn apart: the human cost of U.S. and Cuban restrictions on travel], October 2005, chapter II, "Las restricciones de Cuba sobre los viajes" [Cuba's travel restrictions]. https://www.hrw.org/legacy/spanish/informes/2005/cuba1005/2.htm (in context)
  8. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-11, part 1, document 271, memorandum from Serban Vallimarescu to Brent Scowcroft, "Hijacking Agreement with Cuba," February 13, 1973, with an editorial note on the February 15 note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p1/d271 (in context)
  9. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-11, part 1, document 273, State Department circular telegram 43380, March 9, 1973. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p1/d273 (in context)
  10. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-11, part 1, document 318, State Department message to the Swiss Embassy in Havana, August 17, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p1/d318 (in context)
  11. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-11, part 1, document 320, memorandum from Harry Shlaudeman to Henry Kissinger, October 12, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p1/d320 (in context)
  12. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-11, part 1, document 321, memorandum from Harry Shlaudeman to Henry Kissinger, "Cubana Airlines Crash: Strategy Paper," October 22, 1976, source note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p1/d321 (in context)
  13. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 4, memorandum from Terence Todman to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, February 22, 1977, with an editorial note citing The New York Times of February 26, 1977. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d4 (in context)
  14. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 12, CIA document, April 12, 1977. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d12 (in context)
  15. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, vol. E-11, part 1, document 306, telegram from the State Department to Secretary Kissinger, "Family Visits to Cuba," December 29, 1975. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p1/d306 (in context)
  16. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 20, memorandum from Zbigniew Brzezinski to President Carter, August 5, 1977, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d20; and document 9, Presidential Directive/NSC-6, March 15, 1977, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d9 (in context)
  17. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 18, State Department paper, "How To Proceed Next With Cuba," undated (1977). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d18 (in context)
  18. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 15, memorandum from Terence Todman to Secretary Vance, "The Havana Negotiations," May 2, 1977, with an editorial note on the opening of the Interests Sections. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d15 (in context)
  19. Michael J. Bustamante, "Enfrentar el retorno: las 'visitas de la comunidad' de 1979. Parte I: El tenso comienzo de un reencuentro" [Facing the return: the 1979 "community visits." Part I: The tense start of a reunion], OnCuba News, June 8, 2020. https://oncubanews.com/cuba/nacion-y-emigracion/enfrentar-el-retorno-las-visitas-de-la-comunidad-de-1979 (in context)
  20. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 84, memorandum from Robert Pastor to Zbigniew Brzezinski, January 3, 1980, with an FBI report of November 30, 1979 and an editorial note on Bernardo Benes. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d84 (in context)
  21. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 47, memorandum for the record by Peter Tarnoff, March 19, 1979. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d47 (in context)
  22. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 35, memorandum from Peter Tarnoff to Zbigniew Brzezinski, "Castro Appeals to the Cuban-American Community," September 13, 1978. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d35 (in context)
  23. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, fiscal year 1978, section "Cuban Political Prisoners." Digitized copy from the USCIS History Library, hosted on honorfirst.com (third-party site). https://www.honorfirst.com/uploads/4/7/0/8/47087249/1978_ins_annual_report.pdf (in context)
  24. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 37, memorandum from David Aaron to President Carter, October 30, 1978. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d37 (in context)
  25. Rafael Hernández, "Nación y Emigración: las orillas del diálogo" [Nation and emigration: the shores of the dialogue], OnCuba News, October 11, 2023 (opinion column). https://oncubanews.com/opinion/columnas/con-todas-sus-letras/nacion-y-emigracion-las-orillas-del-dialogo (in context)
  26. Wendy Lin, "Cuban exile leader murdered," The Record (Hackensack, New Jersey), November 26, 1979, pp. A-1 and A-4 (digitized copy). https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/dialogue/Record-11-26-1979.pdf (in context)
  27. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 42, telegram from the U.S. Interests Section in Havana, December 11, 1978, with an editorial note on telegram 4089. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d42 (in context)
  28. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 3, telegram from the State Department to Secretary Vance, February 17, 1977, editorial note on Huber Matos. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d3 (in context)
  29. Michael J. Bustamante, "Enfrentar el retorno: las 'visitas de la comunidad' de 1979. Parte II: Los 'velorios al revés' y sus consecuencias" [Facing the return: the 1979 "community visits." Part II: The "backward wakes" and their consequences], OnCuba News, June 16, 2020 (includes the quotation from El Miami Herald of May 17, 1980; quotations translated from Spanish). https://oncubanews.com/cuba/nacion-y-emigracion/enfrentar-el-retorno-las-visitas-de-la-comunidad-de-1979-2 (in context)
  30. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 101, CIA document, "Cuba: Implications of Refugee Situation," April 29, 1980. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d101 (in context)
  31. Alfredo Prieto, "Aquel Diálogo del 78" [That Dialogue of '78], OnCuba News, February 25, 2020. https://oncubanews.com/opinion/aquel-dialogo-del-78 (in context)
  32. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 89, summary of conclusions of a Mini-Special Coordination Committee meeting, April 9, 1980, editorial note based on the memoirs of Wayne Smith. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d89 (in context)
  33. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 103, telegram from the U.S. Interests Section in Havana, May 5, 1980, editorial note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d103 (in context)

The Mariel Exodus

  1. Lynn Nashorn, "Castro, Cuba, and a Fleet of Fishing Boats: The Causes and Effects of the Mariel Boatlift," The Text Message (blog of the Textual Records Division, U.S. National Archives), August 3, 2021, accessed November 11, 2026. https://text-message.blogs.archives.gov/2021/08/03/the-causes-and-effects-of-the-mariel-boatlift/ (in context)
  2. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 89, "Summary of Conclusions of a Mini-Special Coordination Committee Meeting," April 9, 1980, with a note citing Wayne Smith's memoir (The Closest of Enemies, pp. 209-210). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d89 (in context)
  3. White House, "Cuban Refugees in the Peruvian Embassy in Havana: White House Statement," April 14, 1980, in The American Presidency Project (UC Santa Barbara). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/cuban-refugees-the-peruvian-embassy-havana-white-house-statement (in context)
  4. Joyce C. Vialet, "Refugee Act Reauthorization: Admissions and Resettlement Issues," Congressional Research Service, Issue Brief IB83060, updated November 22, 1983. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19831122_IB83060_07dfb482ebc3acac8f1d816ab55e0fba83ca2409.pdf (in context)
  5. NPR, White Lies, episode "The Rumors" (transcript), February 9, 2023. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/1149875505 (in context)
  6. Immigration and Ethnic History Society, "Mariel Boatlift of 1980," Immigration History, accessed November 11, 2026. https://immigrationhistory.org/item/mariel-boatlift/ (in context)
  7. Benedict L. Stabile and Robert L. Scheina, "U.S. Coast Guard Operations During the 1980 Cuban Exodus," Office of the Historian, U.S. Coast Guard (copy archived in 2008 by the University of North Texas). https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/web/20080917154254/http://uscg.mil/history/articles/USCG_Mariel_History_1980.asp (in context)
  8. Amnesty International, "United States/Cuba: Cuban "Rafters", Pawns of Two Governments," AMR 51/86/94, October 1994. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/amr510861994en.pdf (in context)
  9. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 103, telegram from the Interests Section in Havana, May 5, 1980, note 2. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d103 (in context)
  10. Jimmy Carter, "League of Women Voters Remarks and a Question-and-Answer Session at the League's Biennial National Convention," May 5, 1980, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/league-women-voters-remarks-and-question-and-answer-session-the-leagues-biennial-national (in context)
  11. Holly Ackerman and Juan M. Clark, The Cuban Balseros: Voyage of Uncertainty, Miami, 1995, text deposited in DukeSpace (Duke University). https://hdl.handle.net/10161/12962 (in context)
  12. New York State Department of Correctional Services, Division of Planning, Research and Evaluation, "The Mariel Cuban Problem," April 1991 (NCJ 142919), pp. 3-6. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/142919NCJRS.pdf (in context)
  13. Jimmy Carter, "Cuban Refugees: Remarks to Reporters Announcing Administration Policy Toward the Refugees," May 14, 1980, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/250325 (in context)
  14. U.S. Coast Guard, "Mariel Boatlift" (statistical sheet of the Alien Migrant Interdiction office, copy archived in 2008 by the University of North Texas). https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20081103212952/http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg531/AMIO/mariel.asp (in context)
  15. Jimmy Carter, "Remarks on Signing the Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980 Into Law Before a Joint Session of the Florida State Legislature," October 10, 1980, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-signing-the-refugee-education-assistance-act-1980-into-law-before-joint-session (in context)
  16. Ruth Ellen Wasem, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," Congressional Research Service, R40566, June 2, 2009, pp. 1-2 and 6. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R40566.html (in context)
  17. White House, "White House Statement on the Administration Policy Toward the Cuban Refugees," May 14, 1980, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/250335 (in context)
  18. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 118, "Summary of Conclusions of a Mini-Special Coordination Committee Meeting," August 20, 1980. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d118 (in context)
  19. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, Garcia-Mir et al. v. Smith et al., No. A-582, memorandum for the respondents before the Supreme Court, October Term 1984. https://www.justice.gov/d9/osg/briefs/1984/01/01/sg840055.txt (in context)
  20. Larry Speakes, "Statement by Principal Deputy Press Secretary Speakes on an Agreement With Cuba Concerning Immigration and Refugee Matters," December 14, 1984, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/research/speeches/121484c (in context)
  21. Oscar Corral and Andres Viglucci, "Mariel: From turmoil to triumph," The Miami Herald, April 3, 2005 (reproduced by latinamericanstudies.org). https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/mariel/triumph.htm (in context)
  22. White House, "Cuban Refugees: Announcement of the Use of Fort Chaffee, Arkansas, as a Temporary Housing Site," May 7, 1980, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/cuban-refugees-announcement-the-use-fort-chaffee-arkansas-temporary-housing-site (in context)
  23. U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), "Assessment of Circumstances Leading to the Contract for Comprehensive Mental Health Care Services for Cuban Entrants at Fort Chaffee, Arkansas," HRD-81-55 (B-202069), February 6, 1981. https://www.gao.gov/products/hrd-81-55 (in context)
  24. NPR, White Lies, episode "The Entry Fiction" (transcript), February 16, 2023. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/1149876040 (in context)
  25. Steven Teske and Blair Rogers, "Cuban Refugee Crisis," CALS Encyclopedia of Arkansas, accessed November 11, 2026. https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/cuban-refugee-crisis-4248/ (in context)
  26. White House, "Cuban Refugees: Statement by the White House Press Secretary," June 7, 1980, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/cuban-refugees-statement-the-white-house-press-secretary (in context)
  27. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Crisis & Response: The Rafter Crisis of 1994 and the U.S. Response," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope: Cuban Rafters at the U.S. Naval Base Guantánamo Bay, 1994-1996, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/crisis (in context)
  28. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 124, "Situation Room Checklist," September 13, 1980. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d124 (in context)
  29. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 126, memorandum from David Aaron to President Carter, September 30, 1980. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d126 (in context)
  30. U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Law Enforcement, "Alien Migrant Interdiction" (copy archived in 2008 by the University of North Texas). https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20081103212952/http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg531/amio.asp (in context)
  31. Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980, Pub. L. 96-422, title V, sec. 501, 94 Stat. 1799, 1809-1810 (October 10, 1980). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg1799.pdf (in context)
  32. David Card, "The Impact of the Mariel Boatlift on the Miami Labor Market," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, vol. 43, no. 2, 1990, pp. 245-257; earlier version: NBER Working Paper 3069, August 1989. https://www.nber.org/papers/w3069 (in context)
  33. George J. Borjas, "The Wage Impact of the Marielitos: A Reappraisal," ILR Review, vol. 70, no. 5, 2017, pp. 1077-1110; earlier version: NBER Working Paper 21588. https://www.nber.org/papers/w21588 (in context)
  34. Giovanni Peri and Vasil Yasenov, "The Labor Market Effects of a Refugee Wave: Synthetic Control Method Meets the Mariel Boatlift," Journal of Human Resources, vol. 54, no. 2, 2019, pp. 267-309; earlier version: NBER Working Paper 21801. https://www.nber.org/papers/w21801 (in context)
  35. Michael A. Clemens and Jennifer Hunt, "The Labor Market Effects of Refugee Waves: Reconciling Conflicting Results," ILR Review, vol. 72, no. 4, 2019, pp. 818-857; earlier version: NBER Working Paper 23433. https://www.nber.org/papers/w23433 (in context)

Between Two Crises

  1. New York State Department of Correctional Services, Division of Planning, Research and Evaluation, "The Mariel Cuban Problem," April 1991 (NCJ 142919), p. 5. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/142919NCJRS.pdf (in context)
  2. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXIII, document 118, "Summary of Conclusions of a Mini-Special Coordination Committee Meeting," August 20, 1980. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v23/d118 (in context)
  3. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, Garcia-Mir et al. v. Smith et al., No. A-582, memorandum for the respondents before the Supreme Court, October Term 1984. https://www.justice.gov/d9/osg/briefs/1984/01/01/sg840055.txt (in context)
  4. Arnold I. Burns, Deputy Attorney General, statement before the Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice of the House of Representatives on the Mariel Cubans, February 4, 1988 (NCJ 109240), pp. 1-9 and 16. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/109240NCJRS.pdf (in context)
  5. Larry Speakes, "Statement by Principal Deputy Press Secretary Speakes on an Agreement With Cuba Concerning Immigration and Refugee Matters," December 14, 1984, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/research/speeches/121484c (in context)
  6. Amnesty International, "United States/Cuba: Cuban "Rafters", Pawns of Two Governments," AMR 51/86/94, October 1994, pp. 1-2. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/amr510861994en.pdf (in context)
  7. Ronald Reagan, White House diary entry of May 20, 1985, Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation & Institute. https://reaganfoundation.org/ronald-reagan/white-house-diaries/diary-entry-05201985 (in context)
  8. U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM), "Martís' broadcasting to Cuba marks 35 years," May 20, 2020. https://www.usagm.gov/2020/05/20/martis-broadcasting-to-cuba-marks-35-years/ (in context)
  9. "Mariel "excludables" to be sent home," The Christian Science Monitor, November 23, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/1123/afill23a.html (in context)
  10. Ronald Reagan, "Proclamation 5517: Suspension of Cuban Immigration," August 22, 1986, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/research/speeches/082286a (in context)
  11. Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, Pub. L. 99-603, sec. 202, 100 Stat. 3359, 3404-3405 (November 6, 1986). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-100/pdf/STATUTE-100-Pg3359.pdf (in context)
  12. Ruth Ellen Wasem, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," Congressional Research Service, R40566, June 2, 2009, pp. 1 and 6. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R40566.html (in context)
  13. The Cuba Platform, "The Special Period," accessed November 11, 2026. https://cubaplatform.org/special-period (in context)
  14. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: Issues for the 111th Congress," Congressional Research Service, R40193, January 13, 2010, section "Economic Conditions." https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20100113_R40193_3a7f6d861b415e292123710edac487f034f97445.html (in context)
  15. Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, Pub. L. 102-484, div. A, title XVII, sec. 1702, 106 Stat. 2575 (October 23, 1992), codified at 22 U.S.C. 6001. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2020-title22/html/USCODE-2020-title22-chap69-sec6001.htm (in context)
  16. Holly Ackerman and Juan M. Clark, The Cuban Balseros: Voyage of Uncertainty, Miami, 1995, text deposited in DukeSpace (Duke University). https://hdl.handle.net/10161/12962 (in context)
  17. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Crisis & Response: The Rafter Crisis of 1994 and the U.S. Response," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope: Cuban Rafters at the U.S. Naval Base Guantánamo Bay, 1994-1996, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/crisis (in context)
  18. Brothers to the Rescue (Hermanos al Rescate), "Background and Information," accessed November 11, 2026. http://www.hermanos.org/Background%20and%20Information.htm (in context)
  19. Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, Pub. L. 102-484, div. A, title XVII, sec. 1706, 106 Stat. 2578, codified at 22 U.S.C. 6005. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2020-title22/html/USCODE-2020-title22-chap69-sec6005.htm (in context)
  20. U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), "Cuba: U.S. Response to the 1994 Cuban Migration Crisis," GAO/NSIAD-95-211, September 18, 1995, p. 2. https://www.gao.gov/products/nsiad-95-211 (in context)
  21. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report No. 47/96, Case 11.436, "Victims of the Tugboat "13 de Marzo" v. Cuba," October 16, 1996 (University of Minnesota Human Rights Library). http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/cases/1996/cuba47-96.htm (in context)
  22. Amnesty International, "Cuba: The Sinking of the "13 de Marzo" Tugboat on 13 July 1994," AMR 25/13/97, July 1997. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/amr250131997en.pdf (in context)

The Rafter Crisis

  1. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Crisis & Response: The Rafter Crisis of 1994 and the U.S. Response," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope: Cuban Rafters at the U.S. Naval Base Guantánamo Bay, 1994-1996, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/crisis (in context)
  2. Holly Ackerman and Juan M. Clark, The Cuban Balseros: Voyage of Uncertainty, Miami, 1995, text deposited in DukeSpace (Duke University). https://hdl.handle.net/10161/12962 (in context)
  3. José Carlos Cueto, "Protestas en Cuba: qué fue el histórico "Maleconazo" de 1994 y cómo se compara con las masivas movilizaciones de este domingo" [Protests in Cuba: what the historic "Maleconazo" of 1994 was and how it compares with this Sunday's mass mobilizations], BBC News Mundo, July 12, 2021. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57805495 (in context)
  4. U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), "Cuba: U.S. Response to the 1994 Cuban Migration Crisis," GAO/NSIAD-95-211, September 18, 1995, pp. 2-4, 8-13. https://www.gao.gov/products/nsiad-95-211 (in context)
  5. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report No. 47/96, Case 11.436, "Victims of the Tugboat "13 de Marzo" v. Cuba," October 16, 1996 (University of Minnesota Human Rights Library). http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/cases/1996/cuba47-96.htm (in context)
  6. Amnesty International, "United States/Cuba: Cuban "Rafters", Pawns of Two Governments," AMR 51/86/94, October 1994. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/amr510861994en.pdf (in context)
  7. Bill Clinton, "Statement on Cuba," August 20, 1994, in The American Presidency Project (UC Santa Barbara). https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-cuba-0 (in context)
  8. Bill Clinton, "The President's News Conference," August 19, 1994, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-1232 (in context)
  9. U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Law Enforcement, "Alien Migrant Interdiction" (copy archived in 2008 by the University of North Texas). https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20081103212952/http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg531/amio.asp (in context)
  10. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Life at the Guantánamo Camps: Detention," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/detention (in context)
  11. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Guantánamo: A New Challenge for the United States' Oldest Military Base Overseas," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/guantanamo (in context)
  12. The Cuba Platform, "The Special Period," accessed November 11, 2026. https://cubaplatform.org/special-period (in context)
  13. Ruth Ellen Wasem, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," Congressional Research Service, R40566, June 2, 2009, pp. 1-3. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R40566.html (in context)
  14. Bill Clinton, "Statement on the Cuba-United States Agreement on Migration," September 9, 1994, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-cuba-united-states-agreement-migration (in context)
  15. GlobalSecurity.org, "Operation Safe Haven / Safe Passage," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/safe_haven.htm (in context)
  16. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "Life at the Guantánamo Camps: Uncertainty," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/uncertainty (in context)
  17. University of Miami Libraries, Cuban Heritage Collection, "The Last Detainees," digital exhibit Between Despair and Hope, 2011. https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/guantanamo/last (in context)
  18. United States and Cuba, "Joint Statement With the Republic of Cuba on Normalization of Migration," May 2, 1995, in The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/joint-statement-with-the-republic-cuba-normalization-migration (in context)

Wet Foot, Dry Foot

  1. Ruth Ellen Wasem, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," Congressional Research Service (CRS), report R40566, June 2, 2009, pp. 1-19. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  2. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Joint Statement," May 2, 1995 (Clinton administration archive). https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1995/05/1995-05-02-joint-us-cuban-statement-on-migration.html (in context)
  3. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," CRS, report R44822, updated September 1, 2018, pp. 40-61 (table 1, "Undocumented Cuban Migrants, FY2010-FY2018"). https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R44822/R44822.20.pdf (in context)
  4. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), "Fact Sheet: Changes to Parole and Expedited Removal Policies Affecting Cuban Nationals," January 12, 2017 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/20171019175128/https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/DHS%20Fact%20Sheet%20FINAL.pdf (in context)
  5. Andorra Bruno, "U.S. Policy on Cuban Migrants: In Brief," CRS, report R44714, December 16, 2016. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R44714.html (in context)
  6. Doris Meissner, INS Commissioner, "Eligibility for Permanent Residence Under the Cuban Adjustment Act Despite Having Arrived at a Place Other than a Designated Port-of-Entry," 1999 memorandum, reproduced by the American Immigration Lawyers Association (AILA), document 99043080, published April 30, 1999. https://www.aila.org/library/ins-policy-memo-on-cuban-adjustment (in context)
  7. DHS, "Eliminating Exception To Expedited Removal Authority for Cuban Nationals Encountered in the United States or Arriving by Sea," Federal Register, vol. 82, pp. 4902-4905, January 17, 2017. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2017/01/17/2017-00914/eliminating-exception-to-expedited-removal-authority-for-cuban-nationals-encountered-in-the-united (in context)
  8. Department of State, "Migration and Refugees: Joint Statement Between the United States of America and Cuba, Signed at Havana January 12, 2017," Treaties and Other International Acts Series 17-112, texts in English and Spanish. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-S-PURL-gpo78151/pdf/GOVPUB-S-PURL-gpo78151.pdf (in context)
  9. USCIS, "Cuban Family Reunification Parole Program," Federal Register, vol. 72, p. 65588, November 21, 2007. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2007/11/21/E7-22679/cuban-family-reunification-parole-program (in context)
  10. David J. Bier, Cato Institute, written testimony before the Subcommittees on Oversight and on Border Security of the House Committee on Homeland Security, published on congress.gov, pp. 3-4. https://www.congress.gov/119/meeting/house/118454/witnesses/HHRG-119-HM09-Wstate-BierD-20250715.pdf (in context)
  11. Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996, Pub. L. 104-114, 110 Stat. 785, enacted March 12, 1996, sections 116 and 206. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ114/html/PLAW-104publ114.htm (in context)
  12. Guadalupe Correa-Cabrera and Elliot Spagat, "U.S. Immigration Policy for Cubans: From Revolution to COVID-19," Wilson Center, Latin American Program, October 2020, p. 18. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/FINAL%20U.S.%20IMMIGRATION%20POLICY%20FOR%20CUBANS-%20FROM%20REVOLUTION%20TO%20COVID-19_0.pdf (in context)
  13. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," CRS, report R44822, April 21, 2017 version. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20170421_R44822_40e4d596a3fdab20eec3beb28e3e0ae60f16443d.pdf (in context)
  14. Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, Pub. L. 104-208, division C, section 606, 110 Stat. 3009-695, September 30, 1996. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/html/PLAW-104publ208.htm (in context)
  15. PBS Frontline, "A Chronology Of The Elian Gonzalez Saga," series Saving Elian. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/elian/etc/eliancron.html (in context)
  16. Larry M. Eig, "The Case of Elian Gonzalez: Legal Basics," CRS, report RS20450, updated September 12, 2000. https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/sipb.mit.edu/contrib/wikileaks-crs/wikileaks-crs-reports/RS20450.pdf (in context)
  17. Voice of America, "US Repatriates 12 Cubans Picked Up in Strange Floating Vessel," July 24, 2003. https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-a-2003-07-24-37-us-67468352/385937.html (in context)
  18. Reuters, "Cubans sailing vintage car caught off Florida," published by NBC News, February 4, 2004. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/wbna4163593 (in context)
  19. Jay Weaver, "Smuggling more prevalent, and deadly," The Miami Herald, November 21, 2001, reproduced by LatinAmericanStudies.org. https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/immigration/cuba-smugglers.htm (in context)
  20. Warren Richey, "As Castro heals, Cuba's people smugglers get back to business," The Christian Science Monitor, August 18, 2006. https://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0818/p02s01-woam.html (in context)
  21. USCIS, "Cuban Medical Professional Parole (CMPP) Program," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/humanitarian-parole/cuban-medical-professional-parole-cmpp-program (in context)
  22. Jeff Mason and Daniel Trotta, "Exclusive: U.S. considers ending program that lures Cuban doctors to defect," Reuters, January 8, 2016, reproduced by Yahoo News. https://sg.news.yahoo.com/exclusive-u-considers-ending-program-lures-cuban-doctors-183156245.html (in context)
  23. Carmen Sesin, "Cuban Doctors Stranded: Can't Travel to US, Cuba, or Stay in Colombia," NBC News, February 20, 2017. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/cuban-doctors-stranded-can-t-travel-us-cuba-or-stay-n720491 (in context)
  24. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 116th Congress and Through the Trump Administration," CRS, report R45657, updated January 22, 2021, p. 54. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/2021-01-22_R45657_fad0487b6ec228d765afe4efa0a73ca16f17a02c.pdf (in context)
  25. "Reforma migratoria en Cuba: reacciones esperadas" [Migration reform in Cuba: expected reactions], OnCuba News, October 21, 2012. https://oncubanews.com/cuba/reforma-migratoria-en-cuba-reacciones-esperadas (in context)
  26. "Adiós “a la cubana”" [Goodbye, Cuban style], CNN en Español, January 15, 2013. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2013/01/15/adios-a-la-cubana (in context)
  27. BBC Mundo, "Balseros en tierra firme: la odisea de los miles de cubanos que atraviesan 8 países para llegar a EE.UU." [Rafters on dry land: the odyssey of the thousands of Cubans crossing 8 countries to reach the U.S.], November 20, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2015/11/151120_mexico_migracion_cubanos_odisea_balseros_jp (in context)
  28. White House, "Statement by the President on Cuba Policy Changes," December 17, 2014. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/17/statement-president-cuba-policy-changes (in context)
  29. Jens Manuel Krogstad, "Cuban immigration to U.S. surges as relations warm," Pew Research Center, January 13, 2017 (updated version of an article from October 7, 2015). https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2017/01/13/cuban-immigration-to-u-s-surges-as-relations-warm/ (in context)
  30. Carlos S. Maldonado, "Nicaragua expulsa a Costa Rica a 1.100 migrantes cubanos" [Nicaragua expels 1,100 Cuban migrants to Costa Rica], El País, November 17, 2015. https://elpais.com/internacional/2015/11/17/mexico/1447730640_203194.html (in context)
  31. BBC Mundo, "Costa Rica suspende su participación política en el SICA por negativa a discutir la crisis de los cubanos" [Costa Rica suspends its political participation in SICA over refusal to discuss the Cuban crisis], December 19, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2015/12/151218_costa_rica_cubanos_migrantes_ab (in context)
  32. BBC Mundo, "Centroamericanos pactan plan piloto para trasladar a México a los cubanos varados" [Central Americans agree on a pilot plan to move stranded Cubans to Mexico], December 29, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2015/12/151228_cubanos_centroamerica_sica_plan_piloto_az (in context)
  33. Juan Paullier, "La incertidumbre de los cientos de cubanos que llevan meses varados en un hotel abandonado en Panamá" [The uncertainty of the hundreds of Cubans stranded for months in an abandoned hotel in Panama], BBC Mundo, April 27, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2016/04/160426_panama_cubanos_varados_paso_canoas_eeuu_jp (in context)
  34. AFP, "Primer grupo de cubanos varados en Costa Rica reanuda viaje a EU" [First group of Cubans stranded in Costa Rica resumes journey to the U.S.], La Prensa (Panama), January 12, 2016. https://www.prensa.com/mundo/Primer-cubanos-Costa-Rica-EU_0_4390811021.html (in context)
  35. Hope Hodge Seck, "Coast Guard Apprehends Most Cuban Migrants in Decade," Military.com, November 30, 2016. https://www.military.com/daily-news/2016/11/29/coast-guard-apprehends-most-cuban-migrants-in-decade.html (in context)

The End of "Wet Foot, Dry Foot"

  1. White House, "Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy," January 12, 2017. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/statement-president-cuban-immigration-policy (in context)
  2. Department of State, "Migration and Refugees: Joint Statement Between the United States of America and Cuba, Signed at Havana January 12, 2017," Treaties and Other International Acts Series 17-112, texts in English and Spanish. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-S-PURL-gpo78151/pdf/GOVPUB-S-PURL-gpo78151.pdf (in context)
  3. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), "Statement by Secretary Johnson on the Continued Normalization of our Migration Relationship with Cuba," January 12, 2017 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/20171017191611/https://www.dhs.gov/news/2017/01/12/statement-secretary-johnson-continued-normalization-our-migration-relationship-cuba (in context)
  4. DHS, "Fact Sheet: Changes to Parole and Expedited Removal Policies Affecting Cuban Nationals," January 12, 2017 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/20171019175128/https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/DHS%20Fact%20Sheet%20FINAL.pdf (in context)
  5. USCIS, "Cuban Medical Professional Parole (CMPP) Program," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/humanitarian-parole/cuban-medical-professional-parole-cmpp-program (in context)
  6. DHS, "Eliminating Exception To Expedited Removal Authority for Cuban Nationals Encountered in the United States or Arriving by Sea," Federal Register, vol. 82, pp. 4902-4905, January 17, 2017. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2017/01/17/2017-00914/eliminating-exception-to-expedited-removal-authority-for-cuban-nationals-encountered-in-the-united (in context)
  7. BBC Mundo, "Qué ganan y pierden Cuba y Estados Unidos con la decisión de Obama de acabar con la política de "pies secos, pies mojados"" [What Cuba and the United States gain and lose from Obama's decision to end the "wet foot, dry foot" policy], January 13, 2017. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-38604691 (in context)
  8. Silvia Ayuso, "Obama pone fin a la política de “pies secos, pies mojados” para los cubanos" [Obama ends the "wet foot, dry foot" policy for Cubans], El País, January 13, 2017. https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/01/12/estados_unidos/1484257647_081706.html (in context)
  9. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," Congressional Research Service (CRS), report R44822, updated September 1, 2018, pp. 32-41 and 58-61. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R44822/R44822.20.pdf (in context)
  10. Carmen Sesin, "Cuban Doctors Stranded: Can't Travel to US, Cuba, or Stay in Colombia," NBC News, February 20, 2017. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/cuban-doctors-stranded-can-t-travel-us-cuba-or-stay-n720491 (in context)
  11. José Vásquez, "Inicia traslado de cubanos del albergue de Gualaca a la Isla de Cuba" [Transfer of Cubans from the Gualaca shelter to the island of Cuba begins], Panamá América, October 23, 2017. https://www.panamaamerica.com.pa/provincias/inicia-traslado-de-cubanos-del-albergue-de-gualaca-la-isla-de-cuba-1086828 (in context)
  12. Telemetro, "Concluye repatriación voluntaria de migrantes cubanos albergados en Chiriquí" [Voluntary repatriation of Cuban migrants sheltered in Chiriquí concludes], November 2, 2017. https://www.telemetro.com/nacionales/Concluye-repatriacion-voluntaria-albergados-Chiriqui_0_1077792510.html (in context)
  13. Andorra Bruno, "Immigration Parole," CRS, report R46570, updated September 18, 2025. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R46570/R46570.4.pdf (in context)
  14. Guadalupe Correa-Cabrera and Elliot Spagat, "U.S. Immigration Policy for Cubans: From Revolution to COVID-19," Wilson Center, Latin American Program, October 2020, pp. 5-15. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/FINAL%20U.S.%20IMMIGRATION%20POLICY%20FOR%20CUBANS-%20FROM%20REVOLUTION%20TO%20COVID-19_0.pdf (in context)
  15. White House, "Remarks by President Trump on the Policy of the United States Towards Cuba," Manuel Artime Theater, Miami, June 16, 2017. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-policy-united-states-towards-cuba/ (in context)
  16. "Strengthening the Policy of the United States Toward Cuba," National Security Presidential Memorandum NSPM-5 of June 16, 2017, Federal Register, vol. 82, pp. 48875-48878, October 20, 2017, section 2(e). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2017/10/20/2017-22928/strengthening-the-policy-of-the-united-states-toward-cuba (in context)
  17. Rex W. Tillerson, Secretary of State, "Actions Taken in Response to Attacks on U.S. Government Personnel in Cuba," September 29, 2017 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/20210426025141/https://2017-2021.state.gov/actions-taken-in-response-to-attacks-on-u-s-government-personnel-in-cuba/index.html (in context)
  18. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," CRS, report R44822, November 22, 2017 version. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20171122_R44822_513de2af64f59c46db87b7893349e9901bbe17c6.pdf (in context)
  19. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," CRS, report R44822, May 11, 2018 version. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20180511_R44822_8dee1f66a2791fd689d2a62cc5e7e19fde6b7501.pdf (in context)
  20. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," CRS, report R44822, February 27, 2018 version. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20180227_R44822_a808cb6ee5632e32c2211d89f5b63c95552dcbbc.pdf (in context)
  21. Mark P. Sullivan, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 116th Congress and Through the Trump Administration," CRS, report R45657, updated January 22, 2021, pp. 50-54. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/2021-01-22_R45657_fad0487b6ec228d765afe4efa0a73ca16f17a02c.pdf (in context)
  22. Cuba Study Group, "Trump's immigration policies keep more than 20,000 Cubans in limbo," January 6, 2019, summary of a Miami Herald article. https://cubastudygroup.org/csg_resources/trumps-immigration-policies-keep-more-than-20000-cubans-in-limbo (in context)
  23. U.S. Embassy in Havana, "Decreasing B2 Visa Validity for Cuban Nationals," press release, March 15, 2019 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/20191122232334/https://cu.usembassy.gov/decreasing-b2-visa-validity-for-cuban-nationals/ (in context)
  24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "Notice of Order Under Sections 362 and 365 of the Public Health Service Act Suspending Introduction of Certain Persons From Countries Where a Communicable Disease Exists," Federal Register, vol. 85, p. 17060, March 26, 2020 (order issued and in effect since March 20, 2020). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/03/26/2020-06327/notice-of-order-under-sections-362-and-365-of-the-public-health-service-act-suspending-introduction (in context)
  25. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters," dataset for fiscal years 2020 to 2022 (file of July 16, 2022), rows with nationality CUBA for fiscal year 2020, own calculation. https://web.archive.org/web/20220716154450/https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2022-Jul/nationwide-encounters-fy20-fy22-jun.csv (in context)

The Great Exodus

  1. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters" (page with the definitions of encounters, apprehensions, inadmissibles and Title 42 expulsions) and datasets "FY21 - FY24 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV file published in October 2024) and "FY20 - FY23 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility"; own calculations filtering nationality "CUBA," accessed November 11, 2026 (copy downloaded from web.archive.org because cbp.gov blocks automated downloads). https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/nationwide-encounters and https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/2024-10/nationwide-encounters-fy21-fy24-aor.csv (in context)
  2. Department of Homeland Security, "Implementation of a Parole Process for Cubans," 88 Fed. Reg. 1266-1279 (January 9, 2023), especially pp. 1268-1271, 1273 and 1275. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-01-09/pdf/2023-00252.pdf (in context)
  3. Yeny García, "Nicaragua, el nuevo Mariel para los cubanos que buscan llegar a EEUU" ["Nicaragua, the new Mariel for Cubans seeking to reach the U.S."], Voz de América, September 27, 2022. https://www.vozdeamerica.com/a/nicaragua-el-nuevo-mariel-de-cubanos/6765074.html (in context)
  4. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated August 29, 2023. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10045/IF10045.102.pdf (in context)
  5. Matthew Bristow and Jim Wyss (Bloomberg), "Cuba to have unified exchange rate starting in January," Al Jazeera, December 11, 2020. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2020/12/11/bb-cuba-to-have-unified-exchange-rate-starting-in-january (in context)
  6. Human Rights Watch, "Cuba: Crackdown on Protests Creates Rights Crisis," July 11, 2022, which presents the report "Prison or Exile: Cuba's Systematic Repression of July 2021 Demonstrators." https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/07/11/cuba-crackdown-protests-creates-rights-crisis (in context)
  7. Al Jazeera, "Cuba acknowledges prosecuting hundreds over last year's protests," January 25, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/25/cuba-acknowledges-prosecuting-100s-over-last-years-protests (in context)
  8. Reuters, "Nicaragua eliminates visa requirement for Cubans," November 23, 2021 (reproduced by The Star). https://www.thestar.com.my/news/world/2021/11/23/nicaragua-eliminates-visa-requirement-for-cubans (in context)
  9. Associated Press, "Nicaragua drops visa requirements for Cubans," November 23, 2021 (reproduced by WDIV ClickOnDetroit). https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/world/2021/11/24/nicaragua-drops-visa-requirements-for-cubans/ (in context)
  10. Federico Mastrogiovanni, "Taking the Volcanoes Route," Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung, July 25, 2023. https://www.rosalux.de/en/news/id/50635/taking-the-volcanoes-route (in context)
  11. International Organization for Migration, "US-Mexico Border World's Deadliest Migration Land Route," September 12, 2023. https://americas.iom.int/en/node/121866 (in context)
  12. U.S. Coast Guard, "Photos Available: Coast Guard repatriates 94 people to Cuba," bulletin of October 22, 2022, with the series of Cubans interdicted by fiscal year 2016-2022. https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USDHSCG/bulletins/333c4bf (in context)
  13. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated January 8, 2025. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10045/IF10045.104.pdf (in context)
  14. U.S. Coast Guard, "Coast Guard repatriates 5 aliens to Cuba," May 20, 2025, with repatriations to Cuba for fiscal years 2023, 2024 and 2025. https://www.news.uscg.mil/Press-Releases/Article/4192770/coast-guard-repatriates-5-aliens-to-cuba/ (in context)
  15. International Organization for Migration, "Missing Migrants in the Caribbean Reached a Record High in 2022," January 24, 2023 (reproduced by the United Nations in the Caribbean). https://caribbean.un.org/en/node/216507 (in context)
  16. Texas v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 6:23-cv-00007, Memorandum Opinion and Order (S.D. Tex. March 8, 2024), pp. 3-4. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-txsd-6_23-cv-00007/pdf/USCOURTS-txsd-6_23-cv-00007-5.pdf (in context)
  17. Matter of Cabrera-Fernandez, 28 I&N Dec. 747 (BIA 2023), decided September 11, 2023. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1320131/dl?inline (in context)
  18. 8 C.F.R. § 1.4, "Definition of Form I-94," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-8/chapter-I/subchapter-A/part-1/section-1.4 (in context)
  19. 8 U.S.C. § 1226(a), "Arrest, detention, and release" (INA section 236(a)), accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1226 (in context)
  20. Matter of Aguilar-Aquino, 24 I&N Dec. 747 (BIA 2009), decided March 12, 2009, p. 748 (describes an "Order of Release on Recognizance (Form I-220A)" and its conditions). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol24/3634.pdf (in context)
  21. Center for Democracy in the Americas, "Federal ruling to prevent thousands of Cubans from receiving permanent residency," U.S.-Cuba News Brief, September 13, 2023 (summarizes The Miami Herald's reporting on the BIA decision). https://www.weareceda.org/en/us-cuba-news-brief/federal-ruling-to-prevent-thousands-of-cubans-from-receiving-permanent-residency-september-13-2023 (in context)
  22. Congressional Research Service, "Immigration Parole," R46570, updated September 18, 2025, p. 7. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R46570/R46570.3.pdf (in context)
  23. Bloomberg Línea (with reporting from EFE), "La población de Cuba se habría reducido en 24% tras éxodo ocurrido en los últimos cuatro años" ["Cuba's population may have shrunk 24% after the exodus of the past four years"], March 26, 2025. https://www.bloomberglinea.com/latinoamerica/la-poblacion-de-cuba-se-habria-reducido-en-24-tras-exodo-de-los-ultimos-cuatro-anos/ (in context)
  24. OnCuba News (with reporting from EFE), "La población de Cuba cayó un 18 % entre 2022 y 2023, según un estudio independiente" ["Cuba's population fell 18% between 2022 and 2023, according to an independent study"], July 9, 2024. https://oncubanews.com/cuba/la-poblacion-de-cuba-cayo-un-18-entre-2022-y-2023-segun-un-estudio-independiente/ (in context)
  25. OnCuba News (with reporting from the Cuban News Agency), "La población efectiva de Cuba no llega a 10 millones de habitantes, confirma la Onei" ["Cuba's effective population does not reach 10 million inhabitants, ONEI confirms"], August 11, 2024. https://oncubanews.com/cuba/la-poblacion-efectiva-de-cuba-no-llega-a-10-millones-de-habitantes-confirma-la-onei (in context)
  26. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated December 28, 2022. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10045/IF10045.101.pdf (in context)
  27. Department of Homeland Security, "Implementation of Changes to the Cuban Family Reunification Parole Process," 88 Fed. Reg. 54639 (August 11, 2023), pp. 54640-54642 (footnote 1 on p. 54640 cites the Joint Communique of September 9, 1994). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-08-11/pdf/2023-17376.pdf (in context)
  28. Center for Democracy in the Americas, "USCIS Field office reopens in Havana and CFRP program is modernized," U.S.-Cuba News Brief, August 22, 2023. https://www.weareceda.org/en/us-cuba-news-brief/uscis-field-office-reopens-in-havana-and-cfrp-program-is-modernized-august-22-2023 (in context)
  29. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, "DHS Reopens USCIS Field Office in Havana, Cuba," August 17, 2023. https://www.uscis.gov/newsroom/news-releases/dhs-reopens-uscis-field-office-in-havana-cuba (in context)

Humanitarian Parole

  1. The White House, "Fact Sheet: Biden-Harris Administration Announces New Border Enforcement Actions," January 5, 2023 (archived Biden administration site). https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/01/05/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-announces-new-border-enforcement-actions/ (in context)
  2. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, datasets "FY21 - FY24 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV published in October 2024) and "FY22 - FY25 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV published in November 2025), filtered by nationality "CUBA"; own calculations, accessed November 11, 2026 (copies downloaded from web.archive.org because cbp.gov blocks automated downloads). https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/2024-10/nationwide-encounters-fy21-fy24-aor.csv and https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/2025-11/nationwide-encounters-fy22-fy25-aor.csv (in context)
  3. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "CBP Releases December 2024 Monthly Update," January 14, 2025. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-releases-december-2024-monthly-update (in context)
  4. Department of Homeland Security, "Implementation of a Parole Process for Cubans," 88 Fed. Reg. 1266-1279 (January 9, 2023); the quotation, on p. 1268; requirements and steps, pp. 1275-1277. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-01-09/pdf/2023-00252.pdf (in context)
  5. Department of Homeland Security, "Implementation of Changes to the Cuban Family Reunification Parole Process," 88 Fed. Reg. 54639 (August 11, 2023), p. 54640, where DHS explains that Cubans who enter with CFRP parole may apply for adjustment under the Cuban Adjustment Act one year after arrival. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-08-11/pdf/2023-17376.pdf (in context)
  6. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, "Frequently Asked Questions About the Processes for Cubans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Venezuelans," last updated October 4, 2024 (web.archive.org copy of January 4, 2025). https://web.archive.org/web/20250104043158/https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/frequently-asked-questions-about-the-processes-for-cubans-haitians-nicaraguans-and-venezuelans (in context)
  7. Texas v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 6:23-cv-00007, Memorandum Opinion and Order (S.D. Tex. March 8, 2024), Judge Drew B. Tipton. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-txsd-6_23-cv-00007/pdf/USCOURTS-txsd-6_23-cv-00007-5.pdf (in context)
  8. Department of Homeland Security, "Implementation of a Change to the Parole Process for Cubans," 88 Fed. Reg. 26329 (April 28, 2023). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-04-28/pdf/2023-09013.pdf (in context)
  9. Congressional Research Service, "Immigration Parole," R46570, updated September 18, 2025, p. 7. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R46570/R46570.3.pdf (in context)
  10. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "CBP Releases September 2023 Monthly Update," October 21, 2023. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-releases-september-2023-monthly-update (in context)
  11. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters," definitions of encounters, inadmissibles and Title 42 expulsions, accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/nationwide-encounters (in context)
  12. Department of Homeland Security and Executive Office for Immigration Review, "Circumvention of Lawful Pathways," 88 Fed. Reg. 31314 (May 16, 2023), in effect since May 11, 2023; text of the new 8 C.F.R. § 208.33 on p. 31450. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-05-16/pdf/2023-10146.pdf (in context)
  13. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated August 29, 2023. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10045/IF10045.102.pdf (in context)
  14. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated January 8, 2025. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10045/IF10045.104.pdf (in context)
  15. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "CBP Releases September 2024 Monthly Update," October 22, 2024. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-releases-september-2024-monthly-update (in context)
  16. Department of Homeland Security, "Termination of Parole Processes for Cubans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Venezuelans," 90 Fed. Reg. 13611 (March 25, 2025), pp. 13612, 13614 and 13616-13617; footnote 56 cites Stephen Dinan, "'Parole' program put on hold amid massive fraud," The Washington Times, August 2, 2024. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-03-25/pdf/2025-05128.pdf (in context)
  17. U.S. Coast Guard, "Coast Guard repatriates 5 aliens to Cuba," May 20, 2025. https://www.news.uscg.mil/Press-Releases/Article/4192770/coast-guard-repatriates-5-aliens-to-cuba/ (in context)
  18. Proclamation 10773, "Securing the Border," 89 Fed. Reg. 48487 (June 7, 2024), signed June 3, 2024. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2024-06-07/pdf/2024-12647.pdf (in context)
  19. Department of Homeland Security and Executive Office for Immigration Review, "Securing the Border," interim final rule, 89 Fed. Reg. 48710 (June 7, 2024), in effect since June 5, 2024. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2024-06-07/pdf/2024-12435.pdf (in context)

Closed Doors, Law Still Standing

  1. Thalía Fuentes Puebla, "Cuba cerró 2025 con 9 434 593 habitantes y mantiene tendencia al decrecimiento poblacional" [Cuba closed 2025 with 9,434,593 inhabitants and maintains a trend of population decline], Cubadebate, reproduced by the station CMHW, July 22, 2026, with data from the Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Información (ONEI). https://www.cmhw.cu/nacionales/cuba-cerro-2025-con-9-434-593-habitantes-y-mantiene-tendencia-al-decrecimiento-poblacional. See also EFE, "Cerca de 250.000 personas emigraron de Cuba en 2025, según cifras oficiales" [Nearly 250,000 people emigrated from Cuba in 2025, according to official figures], Swissinfo, July 21, 2026, https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/cerca-de-250.000-personas-emigraron-de-cuba-en-2025%2C-seg%C3%BAn-cifras-oficiales/91781384, and AFP, "Cuba's population slide continued in 2025 to 9.4 mn", Arab News, July 22, 2026, https://www.arabnews.pk/node/2651891/world (in context)
  2. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "CBP Removes Scheduling Functionality in CBP One™ App", press release of January 21, 2025. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-removes-scheduling-functionality-cbp-one-app (in context)
  3. Executive Order 14165, "Securing Our Borders", January 20, 2025, 90 Fed. Reg. 8467 (January 30, 2025), section 7, quoted verbatim in the CHNV termination notice, 90 Fed. Reg. 13611. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/01/30/2025-02015/securing-our-borders (in context)
  4. Proclamation 10886, "Declaring a National Emergency at the Southern Border of the United States", January 20, 2025, 90 Fed. Reg. 8327 (January 29, 2025). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-01-29/pdf/2025-01948.pdf (in context)
  5. Department of Homeland Security, "Designating Aliens for Expedited Removal", 90 Fed. Reg. 8139 (January 24, 2025). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-01-24/pdf/2025-01720.pdf (in context)
  6. Public Law 89-732, 80 Stat. 1161 (November 2, 1966), as amended, and Public Law 104-208, div. C, section 606 (1996), in the notes to 8 U.S.C. § 1255, Office of the Law Revision Counsel, United States Code current through Public Law 119-138 (November 3, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255/ (in context)
  7. Department of Homeland Security, "Termination of Parole Processes for Cubans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Venezuelans", 90 Fed. Reg. 13611 (March 25, 2025). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/03/25/2025-05128/termination-of-parole-processes-for-cubans-haitians-nicaraguans-and-venezuelans (in context)
  8. U.S. Supreme Court, Noem v. Doe, No. 24A1079, order of May 30, 2025, with Justice Jackson dissenting. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/24pdf/24a1079_p86b.pdf (in context)
  9. U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, Doe v. Noem, No. 25-1384, opinion of September 12, 2025. https://www.ca1.uscourts.gov/sites/ca1/files/opnfiles/25-1384P-01A.pdf (in context)
  10. U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts, Doe v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 1:25-cv-12245-ADB, Memorandum and Order (document 48), March 31, 2026. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.mad.287744/gov.uscourts.mad.287744.48.0.pdf (in context)
  11. Kaia Hubbard and Kathryn Watson, "Markwayne Mullin sworn in as DHS secretary after Senate confirmation", CBS News, March 24, 2026, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/markwayne-mullin-confirmed-dhs-secretary-senate; The White House, "Secretary Markwayne Mullin Is Ready to Deliver on President Trump's Agenda", March 24, 2026, https://www.whitehouse.gov/articles/2026/03/secretary-markwayne-mullin-is-ready-to-deliver-on-president-trumps-agenda/ (in context)
  12. U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts, Doe v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 1:25-cv-12245-ADB, Memorandum and Order (document 67), July 15, 2026. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.mad.287744/gov.uscourts.mad.287744.67.0.pdf (in context)
  13. U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts, Doe v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 1:25-cv-12245-ADB, Defendants' Status Update (document 56), April 21, 2026. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.mad.287744/gov.uscourts.mad.287744.56.0.pdf (in context)
  14. Department of Homeland Security, "Termination of Family Reunification Parole Processes for Colombians, Cubans, Ecuadorians, Guatemalans, Haitians, Hondurans, and Salvadorans", 90 Fed. Reg. 58032 (December 15, 2025). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/12/15/2025-22744/termination-of-family-reunification-parole-processes-for-colombians-cubans-ecuadorians-guatemalans (in context)
  15. Proclamation 10949, "Restricting the Entry of Foreign Nationals To Protect the United States From Foreign Terrorists and Other National Security and Public Safety Threats", June 4, 2025, 90 Fed. Reg. 24497 (June 10, 2025), sections 2, 3(b), 4(b), 6(d) and 8. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-06-10/pdf/2025-10669.pdf (in context)
  16. Proclamation 10998, "Restricting and Limiting the Entry of Foreign Nationals To Protect the Security of the United States", December 16, 2025, 90 Fed. Reg. 59717 (December 19, 2025), sections 3, 6 and 10. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-12-19/pdf/2025-23570.pdf (in context)
  17. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, memorandum PM-602-0192, "Hold and Review of all Pending Asylum Applications and all USCIS Benefit Applications Filed by Aliens from High-Risk Countries", December 2, 2025, copy published by AILA (doc. 25120361). https://assets.aila.org/files/fabb8870-5466-4dc2-ae58-3bf04e2cbf3b/25120362.pdf (in context)
  18. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, memorandum PM-602-0194, "Hold and Review of USCIS Benefit Applications Filed by Aliens from Additional High-Risk Countries", January 1, 2026, note 2, copy published by AILA (doc. 26010531). https://assets.aila.org/files/dbed5cde-2ec8-4119-b256-c76ce5067761/26010531.pdf (in context)
  19. U.S. District Court for the District of Rhode Island, Dorcas International Institute of Rhode Island v. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, No. 1:26-cv-00132-JJM-PAS, Memorandum and Order (document 28), June 5, 2026. https://ecf.rid.uscourts.gov/cgi-bin/show_public_doc?2026cv0132-28 (in context)
  20. U.S. District Court for the District of Rhode Island, Dorcas International Institute of Rhode Island v. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, No. 1:26-cv-00132-JJM-PAS, Order (document 51), July 15, 2026, which denies the stay and mentions appeal No. 26-1703 before the First Circuit. https://ecf.rid.uscourts.gov/cgi-bin/show_public_doc?2026cv0132-51; U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, memoranda PM-602-0192 and PM-602-0194 at uscis.gov, bearing the legend "This memorandum is no longer in effect due to court orders", Internet Archive copy of November 3, 2026, https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-alerts/PM-602-0192-PendingApplicationsHighRiskCountries-20251202.pdf and https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-alerts/PM-602-0194-PendingApplicationsAdditionalHighRiskCountries-20260101.pdf (in context)
  21. Matter of Cabrera-Fernandez, 28 I&N Dec. 747 (BIA 2023), decided September 11, 2023. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1320131/dl?inline= (in context)
  22. Matter of Roque-Izada, 29 I&N Dec. 106 (BIA 2025), decided June 20, 2025. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1404086/dl?inline= (in context)
  23. Matter of Q. Li, 29 I&N Dec. 66 (BIA 2025), decided May 15, 2025. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1400431/dl?inline= (in context)
  24. Congressional Research Service, "Mandatory Detention During Removal Proceedings: Circuit Split", Legal Sidebar LSB11438, updated September 3, 2026. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/2026-09-03_LSB11438_8fa1483a24aa640205b2743c33a192b05c76edb7.pdf (in context)
  25. Matter of Yajure Hurtado, 29 I&N Dec. 216 (BIA 2025), decided September 5, 2025. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1413311/dl?inline= (in context)
  26. U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, Labrada-Hechavarria v. U.S. Attorney General, Nos. 23-13664 and 24-10645 (consolidated), unpublished per curiam opinion of February 23, 2026. https://cases.justia.com/federal/appellate-courts/ca11/23-13664/23-13664-2026-02-23.pdf (in context)
  27. U.S. Supreme Court, order list of October 1, 2026, No. 26-104, Rhoney v. Barbosa da Cunha, https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/100126zr_6j37.pdf, and question presented ("Whether 8 U.S.C. 1225(b)(2)(A) mandates the detention pending removal proceedings of aliens who, like respondent, are present in the United States without having been admitted"), https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/26-00104qp.pdf; Michael Kunzelman, Associated Press, "Supreme Court grants review of Trump administration's mandatory detention policy for immigrants", reproduced by WLRN, October 1, 2026, https://www.wlrn.org/light/immigration/2026-10-01/supreme-court-grants-review-of-trump-administrations-mandatory-detention-policy-for-immigrants (in context)
  28. Public Law 119-21 (H.R. 1), 139 Stat. 72, July 4, 2025: sections 100002 to 100013 (fees; exception in section 100004(b)(9)), 10108 (SNAP), 71109 (Medicaid), 71201 (Medicare) and 71301 (tax credit). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-119publ21/pdf/PLAW-119publ21.pdf (in context)
  29. Department of Homeland Security, "Immigration Parole Fee Required by HR-1 Reconciliation Bill", 90 Fed. Reg. 48317 (October 16, 2025), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-10-16/pdf/2025-19564.pdf; inflation adjustment notices for fiscal years 2026 (90 Fed. Reg. 52085, November 19, 2025), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-11-19/pdf/2025-20304.pdf, and 2027 (91 Fed. Reg. 62534, October 1, 2026), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-10-01/pdf/2026-20185.pdf (in context)
  30. Executive Office for Immigration Review, fee notice for fiscal year 2027, 91 Fed. Reg. 61447, effective October 1, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-09-29/pdf/2026-19841.pdf (in context)
  31. H.R. 1, 119th Congress, version passed by the House (Engrossed in House), May 2025. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr1eh/xml/BILLS-119hr1eh.xml (in context)
  32. Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980, section 501(e), in the notes to 8 U.S.C. § 1522, accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1522/ (in context)
  33. Department of Homeland Security, "Public Charge Ground of Inadmissibility", proposed rule, 90 Fed. Reg. 52168 (November 19, 2025). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-11-19/pdf/2025-20278.pdf (in context)
  34. Department of Homeland Security, "Public Charge Ground of Inadmissibility", final rule, 91 Fed. Reg. 45324 (July 20, 2026), especially 91 Fed. Reg. 45408 and 45477. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-07-20/pdf/2026-14539.pdf (in context)
  35. Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, version history of 8 CFR 212.23 (text in force until September 17, 2026, section 212.23(a)(6)), accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.ecfr.gov/api/versioner/v1/versions/title-8.json?part=212&section=212.23 (in context)
  36. State of New York et al. v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security et al., No. 1:26-cv-07978 (S.D.N.Y.), complaint filed September 14, 2026. https://ag.ny.gov/sites/default/files/court-filings/new-york-et-al-v-u.s-department-of-homeland-security-et-al-complaint-2026.pdf (in context)
  37. U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, FY 2024 ICE Annual Report, figure 22 and table of removals by country of citizenship for fiscal years 2019 to 2024. https://www.ice.gov/doclib/eoy/iceAnnualReportFY2024.pdf (in context)
  38. EFE, "Cuba recibe un vuelo con 170 migrantes irregulares deportados por Estados Unidos" [Cuba receives a flight with 170 irregular migrants deported by the United States], Swissinfo, February 10, 2026. https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/cuba-recibe-un-vuelo-con-170-migrantes-irregulares-deportados-por-estados-unidos/90923126 (in context)
  39. Human Rights Watch, "Cubans, Many in the US for Decades, Deported to Mexico", May 27, 2026. https://www.hrw.org/news/2026/05/27/cubans-many-in-the-us-for-decades-deported-to-mexico (in context)
  40. Human Rights Watch, "'To Scare People': US Expulsions of Third-Country Nationals to Countries in Africa," report on expulsions of third-country nationals to Africa, October 8, 2026, appendix I. https://www.hrw.org/report/2026/10/08/to-scare-people/us-expulsions-of-third-country-nationals-to-countries-in-africa (in context)
  41. Al Jazeera, "Millions lose power as Cuba hit by fifth blackout in less than a year", September 11, 2025. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/9/11/millions-lose-power-as-cuba-hit-by-fifth-blackout-in-less-than-a-year (in context)
  42. Associated Press, "Hurricane Melissa makes landfall in eastern Cuba as a Category 3 storm", reproduced by MPR News, October 29, 2025. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2025/10/29/npr-hurricane-melissa-landfall-cuba-category-3-storm (in context)
  43. Michelle L. Price and Megan Janetsky, Associated Press, "Trump threatens tariffs on any country that sells oil to Cuba, putting pressure on Mexico", PBS NewsHour, January 29, 2026. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/politics/trump-threatens-tariffs-on-any-country-that-sells-oil-to-cuba-putting-pressure-on-mexico (in context)
  44. Al Jazeera, "Venezuela and Mexico: How Trump is trying to choke Cuba's oil supplies", January 28, 2026. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/1/28/venezuela-and-mexico-how-trump-is-trying-to-choke-cubas-oil-supplies (in context)
  45. Executive Order 14380, "Addressing Threats to the United States by the Government of Cuba", January 29, 2026, 91 Fed. Reg. 5085 (February 3, 2026). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-02-03/pdf/2026-02250.pdf (in context)
  46. Executive Order 14389, "Ending Certain Tariff Actions", February 20, 2026, 91 Fed. Reg. 9437 (February 25, 2026). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-02-25/pdf/2026-03832.pdf (in context)
  47. U.S. Supreme Court, Learning Resources, Inc. v. Trump, No. 24-1287, February 20, 2026. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/25pdf/607us2r12_8nj9.pdf (in context)
  48. Yashraj Sharma, "From blackouts to food shortages: How US blockade is crippling life in Cuba", Al Jazeera, February 8, 2026. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2026/2/8/from-blackouts-to-food-shortages-how-us-blockade-is-crippling-life-in-cuba (in context)
  49. CBS News and Associated Press, "Cuba begins to restore electricity after nationwide power grid collapse", March 22, 2026. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/cuba-nationwide-power-grid-collapse-restoration/ (in context)
  50. EFE, "Octavo apagón nacional en Cuba en 2026: otra caída del SEN" [Eighth nationwide blackout in Cuba in 2026: another collapse of the national grid], OnCuba, September 18, 2026, https://oncubanews.com/cuba/octavo-apagon-nacional-en-cuba-en-2026-otra-caida-del-sen/; EFE, "Cuba empieza a restablecer el servicio eléctrico tras el octavo apagón nacional de 2026" [Cuba begins to restore electric service after the eighth nationwide blackout of 2026], Infobae, September 19, 2026, https://www.infobae.com/america/agencias/2026/09/19/cuba-empieza-a-restablecer-el-servicio-electrico-tras-el-octavo-apagon-nacional-de-2026/ (in context)
  51. Juan Carlos Albizu-Campos Espiñeira, "Cuba: ¿Crisis demográfica o sistémica?" [Cuba: demographic or systemic crisis?], 2025, cited in "La población de Cuba cayó un 24 % en cuatro años, según un estudio independiente" [Cuba's population fell 24% in four years, according to an independent study], OnCuba, March 25, 2025. https://oncubanews.com/cuba/estudio-reduce-la-poblacion-de-cuba-a-8-millones-tras-una-caida-del-24-en-cuatro-anos (in context)
  52. "Reissuance of and Amendments to National Security Presidential Memorandum 5 on Strengthening the Policy of the United States Toward Cuba", memorandum of June 30, 2025, 90 Fed. Reg. 38913 (August 12, 2025), sections 2(e), 3(a) and 4. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-08-12/pdf/2025-15338.pdf (in context)
  53. Executive Order 14404, "Imposing Sanctions on Those Responsible for Repression in Cuba and for Threats to United States National Security and Foreign Policy", May 1, 2026, 91 Fed. Reg. 25061 (May 7, 2026). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-05-07/pdf/2026-09173.pdf (in context)
  54. Department of State, "Notice of Department of State Sanctions Actions", actions of June 4, 2026, 91 Fed. Reg. 50592 (August 5, 2026). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-08-05/pdf/2026-15827.pdf (in context)
  55. Office of Foreign Assets Control, "Cuban Assets Control Regulations", final rule, 91 Fed. Reg. 61741 (September 30, 2026). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-09-30/pdf/2026-19973.pdf (in context)
  56. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters" data file by area of responsibility, fiscal years 2023 to 2026 (CSV, October 2026), encounters with Cuban citizenship summed by fiscal year and by month, accessed November 11, 2026 in the Internet Archive copy. https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/2026-10/nationwide-encounters-fy23-fy26-sep-aor.csv (in context)
  57. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Under President Trump and Secretary Mullin, DHS announces lowest fiscal year border crossings in American history", October 16, 2026. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/under-president-trump-and-secretary-mullin-dhs-announces-lowest (in context)
  58. U.S. Coast Guard, "Coast Guard repatriates 5 aliens to Cuba", May 20, 2025. https://www.news.uscg.mil/Press-Releases/Article/4192770/coast-guard-repatriates-5-aliens-to-cuba/ (in context)
  59. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, Legal Immigration and Adjustment of Status Report, fiscal years 2024 and 2025, tables 1A and 3, rounded to the nearest ten. https://OHSS.DHS.gov/system/files/2026-06/2026_0604_ohss_legal-immigration-adjustment-of-status-fy-2025q4.xlsx (in context)
  60. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 1-year estimates for 2024 and 2025, tables B03001 (line 6, Cuban origin) and B05006 (line 143, born in Cuba), national total. https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/summary_file/2025/table-based-SF/data/1YRData/acsdt1y2025-b03001.dat (in context)
  61. S. 4983, 119th Congress, Harry Reid Immigration Stabilization Act, text as introduced July 15, 2026, section 202(a), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119s4983is/xml/BILLS-119s4983is.xml; bill status (last action, July 15, 2026), https://www.govinfo.gov/bulkdata/BILLSTATUS/119/s/BILLSTATUS-119s4983.xml (in context)
  62. H.R. 4393, 119th Congress, DIGNIDAD (Dignity) Act of 2025, text as introduced July 15, 2025, section 1503(e), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr4393ih/xml/BILLS-119hr4393ih.xml; bill status (last action, July 16, 2025), https://www.govinfo.gov/bulkdata/BILLSTATUS/119/hr/BILLSTATUS-119hr4393.xml (in context)
  63. H.R. 6565, 119th Congress, Reuniting Families Act, section 222, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr6565ih/xml/BILLS-119hr6565ih.xml; and S. 3419, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119s3419is/xml/BILLS-119s3419is.xml; both introduced December 10, 2025. (in context)
  64. H.R. 7521, 119th Congress, United States-Cuba Trade Act of 2026, text as introduced February 12, 2026, section 2(e)(2)(B), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr7521ih/xml/BILLS-119hr7521ih.xml; bill status (last action, February 12, 2026), https://www.govinfo.gov/bulkdata/BILLSTATUS/119/hr/BILLSTATUS-119hr7521.xml (in context)
  65. U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts, Doe v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 1:25-cv-12245-ADB, Memorandum and Order (document 74), September 28, 2026. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.mad.287744/gov.uscourts.mad.287744.74.0.pdf (in context)
  66. Executive Office for Immigration Review, "Volume 29" and "Volume 30" of precedent decisions (through 29 I&N Dec. 865 and 30 I&N Dec. 228), accessed November 11, 2026; the summaries were reviewed, not the full text of each decision. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/volume-29 and https://www.justice.gov/eoir/volume-30 (in context)

What the Cuban Adjustment Act Is

  1. Congressional Research Service, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," report R40566, June 2, 2009, pages 2-4 and 14. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  2. Public Law 89-732, 80 Stat. 1161, November 2, 1966, facsimile of the United States Statutes at Large, U.S. Government Publishing Office, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-80/pdf/STATUTE-80-Pg1161.pdf (in context)
  3. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1255: Adjustment of status of nonimmigrant to that of person admitted for permanent residence," note "Cuban Refugees: Adjustment of Status," text current through Public Law 119-138 (November 3, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255/ (in context)
  4. Public Law 109-162 (Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005), January 5, 2006, section 823(a), 119 Stat. 3063. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-109publ162/html/PLAW-109publ162.htm (in context)
  5. Public Law 96-212 (Refugee Act of 1980), 94 Stat. 102, March 17, 1980, section 203(i), page 108. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg102.pdf (in context)
  6. Public Law 85-700, 72 Stat. 699, August 21, 1958, section 1 (new section 245(c)). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/72/699 (in context)
  7. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1101: Definitions," subsections (b)(1) and (b)(5), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1101/ (in context)
  8. Public Law 89-236, 79 Stat. 911, October 3, 1965, sections 13(b) and 20. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-79/pdf/STATUTE-79-Pg911.pdf (in context)
  9. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjudicator's Field Manual, chapter 23.11, "Cuban Adjustment Act Cases," subsections (a), (b), and (f), accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm23-external.pdf (in context)
  10. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1182: Inadmissible aliens," subsection (d)(5)(A), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1182/ (in context)
  11. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, "Green Card for a Cuban Native or Citizen," last reviewed July 8, 2025, accessed from the web.archive.org copy of November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/green-card-eligibility/green-card-for-a-cuban-native-or-citizen (in context)
  12. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Homeland Security Statistics, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics 2024, table 7, "Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status by Type and Detailed Class of Admission: Fiscal Year 2024." https://ohss.dhs.gov/topics/immigration/yearbook/2024/table7 (in context)
  13. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1101: Definitions," subsection (a)(42), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1101/ (in context)
  14. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1158: Asylum," subsection (a)(2)(B), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1158/ (in context)
  15. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1159: Adjustment of status of refugees," subsections (a), (b), and (c), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1159/ (in context)
  16. Matter of Mesa, 12 I&N Dec. 432 (Deputy Associate Commissioner, September 6, 1967), Interim Decision 1788, pages 437-438, Executive Office for Immigration Review. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1788.pdf (in context)
  17. Department of Homeland Security, "Public Charge Ground of Inadmissibility," final rule, 91 Fed. Reg. 45324, July 20, 2026, effective September 18, 2026, section "Certain Cubans and Haitians" and amendment removing 8 CFR §§ 212.20 through 212.23. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/07/20/2026-14539/public-charge-ground-of-inadmissibility (in context)
  18. Public Law 105-100, November 19, 1997, title II (Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act), section 202, 111 Stat. 2193. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-105publ100/html/PLAW-105publ100.htm (in context)
  19. Code of Federal Regulations, title 8, § 245.2(a)(2), 2025 annual edition; text unchanged in the eCFR as of November 9, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title8-vol1/xml/CFR-2025-title8-vol1-sec245-2.xml (in context)
  20. The White House, "Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy," January 12, 2017, Obama White House archive. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/statement-president-cuban-immigration-policy (in context)
  21. Public Law 104-208, September 30, 1996, division C (Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996), title VI, section 606, 110 Stat. 3009-695. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/html/PLAW-104publ208.htm (in context)
  22. Public Law 104-114 (Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996), March 12, 1996, sections 203(c)(3) and 206. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ114/html/PLAW-104publ114.htm (in context)
  23. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Homeland Security Statistics, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics 2022, table 7. https://ohss.dhs.gov/topics/immigration/yearbook/2022/table7 (in context)
  24. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Homeland Security Statistics, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics 2023, table 7. https://ohss.dhs.gov/topics/immigration/yearbook/2023/table7 (in context)

The Text of the Cuban Adjustment Act

  1. Public Law 89-732, 80 Stat. 1161, November 2, 1966, facsimile of the United States Statutes at Large, U.S. Government Publishing Office, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-80/pdf/STATUTE-80-Pg1161.pdf (in context)
  2. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1255: Adjustment of status of nonimmigrant to that of person admitted for permanent residence," notes "Cuban Refugees: Adjustment of Status" and "Amendments," text current through Public Law 119-138 (November 3, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255/ (in context)
  3. United States Code, 2024 edition, title 8, section 1255, U.S. Government Publishing Office. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2024-title8/html/USCODE-2024-title8-chap12-subchapII-partV-sec1255.htm (in context)
  4. Public Law 85-700, 72 Stat. 699, August 21, 1958, section 1 (new section 245(c)). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/72/699 (in context)
  5. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1101: Definitions," subsections (b)(1) ("child") and (b)(5) ("adjacent islands"), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1101/ (in context)
  6. Public Law 89-236, 79 Stat. 911, October 3, 1965, section 13(b) (new section 245(c)) and section 20 (effective the first day of the first month after thirty days from enactment). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-79/pdf/STATUTE-79-Pg911.pdf (in context)
  7. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1182: Inadmissible aliens," subsection (d)(5)(A), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1182/ (in context)
  8. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjudicator's Field Manual, chapter 23.11, "Cuban Adjustment Act Cases," subsections (a), (d), (e), and (h), accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm23-external.pdf (in context)
  9. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Policy Manual, volume 12, part D, chapter 2, "Lawful Permanent Resident Admission for Naturalization," accessed from the web.archive.org copy of October 29, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-12-part-d-chapter-2 (in context)
  10. Code of Federal Regulations, title 8, § 245.2, paragraphs (a)(1) and (b), 2025 annual edition; text unchanged in the eCFR as of November 9, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title8-vol1/xml/CFR-2025-title8-vol1-sec245-2.xml (in context)
  11. Public Law 86-648, 74 Stat. 504, July 14, 1960, sections 10 and 11. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-74/pdf/STATUTE-74-Pg504.pdf (in context)
  12. Public Law 104-208, September 30, 1996, division C (Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996), title VI, section 606, "Conditional Repeal of Cuban Adjustment Act," 110 Stat. 3009-695. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/html/PLAW-104publ208.htm (in context)
  13. Public Law 104-114 (Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996), March 12, 1996, sections 203(c)(3) and 206, 110 Stat. 785. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ114/html/PLAW-104publ114.htm (in context)
  14. Public Law 96-212 (Refugee Act of 1980), 94 Stat. 102, March 17, 1980, sections 203(i) and 204(b)(1)(C), page 108. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg102.pdf (in context)
  15. Public Law 106-386 (Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000), October 28, 2000, division B, title V, section 1509, 114 Stat. 1530-1531. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-106publ386/html/PLAW-106publ386.htm (in context)
  16. Public Law 109-162 (Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005), January 5, 2006, title VIII, section 823, 119 Stat. 3063. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-109publ162/html/PLAW-109publ162.htm (in context)
  17. Public Law 94-571, 90 Stat. 2703, October 20, 1976, sections 6, 8, and 10. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg2703.pdf (in context)
  18. Congressional Research Service, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," report R40566, June 2, 2009, page 2, note 6. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)

How the Adjustment Act Works Today

  1. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1255: Adjustment of status of nonimmigrant to that of person admitted for permanent residence," note "Cuban Refugees: Adjustment of Status," text current through Public Law 119-138 (November 3, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255/ (in context)
  2. Code of Federal Regulations, title 8, § 245.2, paragraphs (a)(1), (a)(2), (a)(3)(iv), (a)(4)(iii), (a)(5)(iii), and (b), 2025 annual edition; text unchanged in the eCFR as of November 9, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title8-vol1/xml/CFR-2025-title8-vol1-sec245-2.xml (in context)
  3. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, "Green Card for a Cuban Native or Citizen," last reviewed July 8, 2025, accessed from the web.archive.org copy of November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/green-card-eligibility/green-card-for-a-cuban-native-or-citizen (in context)
  4. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Policy Manual, volume 7, part P, "Other Adjustment Programs," chapter index and notice about the AFM, accessed from the web.archive.org copy of November 1, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-7-part-p (in context)
  5. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjudicator's Field Manual, chapter 23.11, "Cuban Adjustment Act Cases," subsections (a) through (o), accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm23-external.pdf (in context)
  6. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Policy Manual, volume 12, part D, chapter 2, "Lawful Permanent Resident Admission for Naturalization," section D, subsection 6, "LPR Status Obtained through Cuban Adjustment Act," accessed from the web.archive.org copy of October 29, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-12-part-d-chapter-2 (in context)
  7. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1182: Inadmissible aliens," subsection (d)(5)(A), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1182/ (in context)
  8. Doris Meissner, Commissioner of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, memorandum "Eligibility for permanent residence under the Cuban Adjustment Act despite having arrived at a place other than a designated port of entry," April 19, 1999, reproduced in appendix 23-4 of the USCIS Adjudicator's Field Manual. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm23-external.pdf (in context)
  9. Matter of Mesa, 12 I&N Dec. 432 (Deputy Associate Commissioner, September 6, 1967), Interim Decision 1788, Executive Office for Immigration Review. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1788.pdf (in context)
  10. Department of Homeland Security, "Public Charge Ground of Inadmissibility," final rule, 91 Fed. Reg. 45324, July 20, 2026, effective September 18, 2026, section "Certain Cubans and Haitians" and amendment removing 8 CFR §§ 212.20 through 212.23. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/07/20/2026-14539/public-charge-ground-of-inadmissibility (in context)
  11. Congressional Research Service, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," report R40566, June 2, 2009, page 2, note 6. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  12. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1101: Definitions," subsection (b)(1), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1101/ (in context)
  13. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1186a: Conditional permanent resident status for certain alien spouses and sons and daughters," subsection (h)(1), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1186a/ (in context)
  14. Code of Federal Regulations, title 8, § 1245.2(a)(1), 2025 annual edition; text unchanged in the eCFR as of November 9, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title8-vol1/xml/CFR-2025-title8-vol1-sec1245-2.xml (in context)
  15. Code of Federal Regulations, title 8, § 1.2, definition of "Arriving alien," 2025 annual edition; text unchanged in the eCFR as of November 9, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title8-vol1/xml/CFR-2025-title8-vol1-sec1-2.xml (in context)

Amendments and Related Laws

  1. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1255: Adjustment of status of nonimmigrant to that of person admitted for permanent residence," source credit, notes "Amendments," "Cuban Refugees: Adjustment of Status," and "Adjustment of Status of Certain Nicaraguans and Cubans," text current through Public Law 119-138 (November 3, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255/ (in context)
  2. Public Law 89-732, 80 Stat. 1161, November 2, 1966, facsimile of the United States Statutes at Large, U.S. Government Publishing Office, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-80/pdf/STATUTE-80-Pg1161.pdf (in context)
  3. Public Law 94-571 (Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1976), 90 Stat. 2703, October 20, 1976, sections 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 10. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg2703.pdf (in context)
  4. Public Law 96-212 (Refugee Act of 1980), 94 Stat. 102, March 17, 1980, sections 201, 203(i), and 204(b)(1)(C). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg102.pdf (in context)
  5. Public Law 104-208, September 30, 1996, division C (Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996), title VI, section 606, "Conditional Repeal of Cuban Adjustment Act," 110 Stat. 3009-695. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/html/PLAW-104publ208.htm (in context)
  6. Public Law 106-386 (Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000), October 28, 2000, division B, title V, sections 1509 and 1510, 114 Stat. 1530-1531. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-106publ386/html/PLAW-106publ386.htm (in context)
  7. Public Law 109-162 (Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005), January 5, 2006, title VIII, sections 811, 814, 823, and 824, 119 Stat. 3057-3063. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-109publ162/html/PLAW-109publ162.htm (in context)
  8. Public Law 85-700, 72 Stat. 699, August 21, 1958, section 1. https://www.govinfo.gov/link/statute/72/699 (in context)
  9. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1101: Definitions," subsection (b)(5), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1101/ (in context)
  10. Public Law 86-648, 74 Stat. 504, July 14, 1960, section 10. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-74/pdf/STATUTE-74-Pg504.pdf (in context)
  11. Public Law 89-236, 79 Stat. 911, October 3, 1965, sections 13, 20, and 21(e). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-79/pdf/STATUTE-79-Pg911.pdf (in context)
  12. Congressional Research Service, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," report R40566, June 2, 2009, pages 2 and 5. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5c818df5cf6f61aac828f7e487dfe38f29f6dce4.pdf (in context)
  13. Code of Federal Regulations, title 8, § 245.2(a)(2)(ii), 2025 annual edition; text unchanged in the eCFR as of November 9, 2026. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title8-vol1/xml/CFR-2025-title8-vol1-sec245-2.xml (in context)
  14. Public Law 104-114 (Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996), March 12, 1996, title and sections 203(c)(3), 205(a), and 206, 110 Stat. 785. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ114/html/PLAW-104publ114.htm (in context)
  15. Doris Meissner, Commissioner of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, memorandum "Eligibility for permanent residence under the Cuban Adjustment Act despite having arrived at a place other than a designated port of entry," April 19, 1999, reproduced in appendix 23-4 of the USCIS Adjudicator's Field Manual. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm23-external.pdf (in context)
  16. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjudicator's Field Manual, chapter 23.11, "Cuban Adjustment Act Cases," subsections (h), (k), and (m)(3), accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm23-external.pdf (in context)
  17. Office of the Law Revision Counsel, "8 U.S.C. 1255a: Adjustment of status of certain entrants before January 1, 1982, to that of person admitted for lawful residence," note "Cuban-Haitian Adjustment" (Pub. L. 99-603, title II, section 202, 100 Stat. 3404), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255a/ (in context)
  18. Public Law 105-100, November 19, 1997, title II (Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act), section 202(a) and (b), 111 Stat. 2193. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-105publ100/html/PLAW-105publ100.htm (in context)

Parole, Wet Foot, Dry Foot, and the I-220A

  1. Pub. L. 89-732, November 2, 1966, 80 Stat. 1161, as amended, reproduced as a note to 8 U.S.C. § 1255 in the United States Code, 2023 edition, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title8/html/USCODE-2023-title8-chap12-subchapII-partV-sec1255.htm (in context)
  2. 8 U.S.C. § 1182(d)(5)(A) (INA § 212(d)(5)(A)), United States Code, 2023 edition, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title8/html/USCODE-2023-title8-chap12-subchapII-partII-sec1182.htm (in context)
  3. American Immigration Council, "The Use of Parole Under Immigration Law," fact sheet, July 2026, p. 2, citing Doe v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 1:25-cv-12245 (D. Mass., March 31, 2026). https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/the_use_of_parole_under_immigration_law_2026.pdf (in context)
  4. Congressional Research Service, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," R40566, June 2, 2009. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R40566.html (in context)
  5. 8 C.F.R. § 235.1(h)(2), eCFR, accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-8/section-235.1 (in context)
  6. USCIS, "Green Card for a Cuban Native or Citizen," updated July 8, 2025, accessed November 11, 2026 in its web.archive.org copy of that date. https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/green-card-eligibility/green-card-for-a-cuban-native-or-citizen (in context)
  7. Matter of Castillo-Padilla, 25 I&N Dec. 257 (BIA 2010), which describes the memorandum of Commissioner Doris Meissner of April 19, 1999 and a 2007 DHS memorandum. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol25/3683.pdf (in context)
  8. USCIS, "Cuban Medical Professional Parole (CMPP) Program," updated January 19, 2017, accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/humanitarian-parole/cuban-medical-professional-parole-cmpp-program (in context)
  9. White House, "Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy," January 12, 2017. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/statement-president-cuban-immigration-policy (in context)
  10. USCIS, "Cuban Family Reunification Parole Program," 72 Fed. Reg. 65588 (November 21, 2007). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/72/65588?link-type=pdf (in context)
  11. DHS, "Termination of Family Reunification Parole Processes for Colombians, Cubans, Ecuadorians, Guatemalans, Haitians, Hondurans, and Salvadorans," 90 Fed. Reg. 58032 (December 15, 2025), "Dates" section, https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/90/58032?link-type=pdf; on the September 2022 resumption, DHS, 88 Fed. Reg. 1266 (January 9, 2023), which cites the USCIS alert of September 9, 2022, https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/88/1266?link-type=pdf (in context)
  12. DHS, "Implementation of a Parole Process for Cubans," 88 Fed. Reg. 1266 (January 9, 2023). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/88/1266?link-type=pdf (in context)
  13. DHS, "Termination of Parole Processes for Cubans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Venezuelans," 90 Fed. Reg. 13611 (March 25, 2025), section I. https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/90/13611?link-type=pdf (in context)
  14. DHS, 90 Fed. Reg. 13611 (March 25, 2025), "Dates" and implementation sections. https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/90/13611?link-type=pdf (in context)
  15. U.S. Supreme Court, Noem v. Doe, No. 24A1079, order of May 30, 2025 and dissent of Justice Jackson, which describes the district court's order (case 1:25-cv-10495, D. Mass.). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/24pdf/24a1079_p86b.pdf (in context)
  16. DHS, 90 Fed. Reg. 13611 (March 25, 2025), text and notes 16 and 17, which cite the analysis by the Office of Homeland Security Statistics and the CBP press release "CBP Removes Scheduling Functionality in CBP One App" (January 21, 2025). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/90/13611?link-type=pdf (in context)
  17. Congressional Research Service, R40566, June 2, 2009, sections "Cuban Migration Agreement, May 1995" and following. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R40566.html (in context)
  18. DHS, "Eliminating Exception to Expedited Removal Authority for Cuban Nationals Arriving by Air," 82 Fed. Reg. 4769 (January 17, 2017). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/82/4769?link-type=pdf (in context)
  19. DHS, "Eliminating Exception To Expedited Removal Authority for Cuban Nationals Encountered in the United States or Arriving by Sea," 82 Fed. Reg. 4902 (January 17, 2017). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/82/4902?link-type=pdf (in context)
  20. 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(6)(A)(i) (INA § 212(a)(6)(A)(i)), United States Code, 2023 edition, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title8/html/USCODE-2023-title8-chap12-subchapII-partII-sec1182.htm (in context)
  21. Matter of Alvarez-Riera, 12 I&N Dec. 112 (BIA 1967). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1705.pdf (in context)
  22. USCIS, "Instructions for Application to Register Permanent Residence or Adjust Status" (Form I-485), edition of September 18, 2026, p. 30, section on the Cuban Adjustment Act, accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/forms/i-485instr.pdf (in context)
  23. The name of the form appears in the USCIS notice of February 23, 2022 and in the government's motion to dismiss in Bello-Rubio v. Noem, both cited below. (in context)
  24. 8 U.S.C. § 1226(a) (INA § 236(a)), United States Code, 2023 edition, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title8/html/USCODE-2023-title8-chap12-subchapII-partIV-sec1226.htm (in context)
  25. USCIS, "Notice for Certain Natives or Citizens of Cuba Who Are "Arriving Aliens" and Who Were Denied Adjustment of Status under the Cuban Adjustment Act Based Solely on a Determination That They Had Not Met Their Burden of Establishing That They Had Been Admitted or Paroled," February 23, 2022. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/notices/USCIS_CAA_AA_485_Denied_NoParole_Process-Feb232022.pdf (in context)
  26. Matter of Cabrera-Fernandez, 28 I&N Dec. 747 (BIA 2023). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1320131/dl?inline (in context)
  27. Matter of Roque-Izada, 29 I&N Dec. 106 (BIA 2025). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1404086/dl?inline (in context)
  28. Matter of Q. Li, 29 I&N Dec. 66 (BIA 2025). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1400431/dl?inline (in context)
  29. Labrada-Hechavarria v. U.S. Attorney General, Nos. 23-13664 and 24-10645 (11th Cir. February 23, 2026), unpublished per curiam opinion, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca11-24-10645/pdf/USCOURTS-ca11-24-10645-0.pdf; on the weight of unpublished opinions, Eleventh Circuit Rule 36-2, August 2026 edition, https://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/courtdocs/clk/Rules%20Bookmarked.AUG26.pdf (in context)
  30. Bello-Rubio v. Noem, No. 1:25-cv-23665 (S.D. Fla.), government's motion to dismiss (doc. 39, November 10, 2025) and reply (doc. 47, December 1, 2025). https://habeasdockets.org/media/documents/71113761/039_051029106013-4114acf3f270.pdf and https://habeasdockets.org/media/documents/71113761/047_051029179212-194f0d8633da.pdf (in context)
  31. Bello-Rubio v. Noem, No. 1:25-cv-23665 (S.D. Fla.), docket entries 63 (minutes of the September 10, 2026 hearing) and 64 (order of September 11, 2026: "the Motion, ECF No. 39, is DENIED"), accessed November 11, 2026 at Habeas Dockets, which reproduces the PACER docket. https://habeasdockets.org/dockets/docket/1350/ (in context)
  32. Bello-Rubio v. Noem, docket, entries 72 (second amended complaint, September 18, 2026), 77 (new motion to dismiss, October 9, 2026), 86 (opposition, October 23), 87 (reply, October 30), and 89 (request for a hearing, November 5, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026 at Habeas Dockets. https://habeasdockets.org/dockets/docket/1350/ (in context)
  33. Executive Office for Immigration Review (EOIR), indexes of precedent decisions, volumes 29 and 30, reviewed November 11, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/volume-29 and https://www.justice.gov/eoir/volume-30 (in context)
  34. U.S. Supreme Court, docket No. 26-104, Rhoney v. Barbosa da Cunha, and "Question Presented," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/26-104.html and https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/qp/26-00104qp.pdf (in context)
  35. H.R. 4393, 119th Congress, Dignity for Immigrants while Guarding our Nation to Ignite and Deliver the American Dream Act of 2025, text as introduced July 15, 2025, section 1503(e), govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr4393ih/html/BILLS-119hr4393ih.htm (in context)
  36. Proclamation 10949, "Restricting the Entry of Foreign Nationals To Protect the United States From Foreign Terrorists and Other National Security and Public Safety Threats," June 4, 2025, 90 Fed. Reg. 24497 (June 10, 2025). https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/90/24497?link-type=pdf (in context)
  37. USCIS, memoranda PM-602-0192, "Hold and Review of all Pending Asylum Applications and all USCIS Benefit Applications Filed by Aliens from High-Risk Countries," December 2, 2025, and PM-602-0194, January 1, 2026, with the USCIS note on Dorcas International Institute of Rhode Island v. USCIS and Red Eagle Law, L.C. v. Edlow. https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-alerts/PM-602-0192-PendingApplicationsHighRiskCountries-20251202.pdf and https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/policy-alerts/PM-602-0194-PendingApplicationsAdditionalHighRiskCountries-20260101.pdf (in context)

The Cuban Adjustment Act in the Courts

  1. Pub. L. 89-732, November 2, 1966, 80 Stat. 1161, as amended, reproduced as a note to 8 U.S.C. § 1255 in the United States Code, 2023 edition, govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title8/html/USCODE-2023-title8-chap12-subchapII-partV-sec1255.htm (in context)
  2. 8 C.F.R. § 1003.1(g)(1)-(2), eCFR, accessed November 11, 2026, https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-8/section-1003.1; and U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, Rule 36-2 ("Unpublished opinions are not considered binding precedent, but they may be cited as persuasive authority"), August 2026 edition, https://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/courtdocs/clk/Rules%20Bookmarked.AUG26.pdf (in context)
  3. Matter of Alvarez-Riera, 12 I&N Dec. 112 (BIA 1967), Interim Decision #1705. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1705.pdf (in context)
  4. Matter of Bellido, 12 I&N Dec. 369 (Reg. Comm. 1967), Interim Decision #1769. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1769.pdf (in context)
  5. Matter of Masson, 12 I&N Dec. 699 (BIA 1968), Interim Decision #1855. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1855.pdf (in context)
  6. Matter of Piedra, 12 I&N Dec. 788 (Reg. Comm. 1968), Interim Decision #1880. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol12/1880.pdf (in context)
  7. Matter of Costarelli, 13 I&N Dec. 575 (BIA 1970), Interim Decision #2047. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol13/2047.pdf (in context)
  8. Matter of Quijada-Coto, 13 I&N Dec. 740 (BIA 1971), Interim Decision #2092. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol13/2092.pdf (in context)
  9. Matter of Carrillo-Gutierrez, 16 I&N Dec. 429 (BIA 1977), Interim Decision #2627. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol16/2627.pdf (in context)
  10. Matter of Diaz-Chambrot, 19 I&N Dec. 674 (BIA 1988), Interim Decision #3069. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol19/3069.pdf (in context)
  11. Matter of Rivera-Rioseco, 19 I&N Dec. 833 (BIA 1988), Interim Decision #3092. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol19/3092.pdf (in context)
  12. Matter of Carrillo, 25 I&N Dec. 99 (BIA 2009), Interim Decision #3658. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol25/3658.pdf (in context)
  13. Matter of Espinosa Guillot, 25 I&N Dec. 653 (BIA 2011), Interim Decision #3735, which describes the judge's decision based on Lanier v. U.S. Attorney General, 631 F.3d 1363 (11th Cir. 2011). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol25/3735.pdf (in context)
  14. Matter of Artigas, 23 I&N Dec. 99 (BIA 2001), Interim Decision #3450. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol23/3450.pdf (in context)
  15. Matter of Martinez-Montalvo, 24 I&N Dec. 778 (BIA 2009), Interim Decision #3639, which cites the interim regulation at 71 Fed. Reg. 27,585 (May 12, 2006). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol24/3639.pdf (in context)
  16. Matter of Silitonga, 25 I&N Dec. 89 (BIA 2009), Interim Decision #3656. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol25/3656.pdf (in context)
  17. Matter of E-R-M- & L-R-M-, 25 I&N Dec. 520 (BIA 2011), Interim Decision #3716. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol25/3716.pdf (in context)
  18. Perez v. U.S. Bureau of Citizenship & Immigration Services, 774 F.3d 960 (11th Cir. 2014), No. 14-11084, published opinion of December 19, 2014. https://media.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/files/201411084.pdf (in context)
  19. Matter of Castillo-Padilla, 25 I&N Dec. 257 (BIA 2010), Interim Decision #3683. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/vll/intdec/vol25/3683.pdf (in context)
  20. Matter of Coronado Acevedo, 28 I&N Dec. 648 (A.G. 2022), Interim Decision #4053. https://www.justice.gov/media/1260411/dl?inline (in context)
  21. Matter of Cabrera-Fernandez, 28 I&N Dec. 747 (BIA 2023), Interim Decision #4066. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1320131/dl?inline (in context)
  22. Matter of Q. Li, 29 I&N Dec. 66 (BIA 2025), Interim Decision #4095. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1400431/dl?inline (in context)
  23. Matter of Roque-Izada, 29 I&N Dec. 106 (BIA 2025), Interim Decision #4103. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1404086/dl?inline (in context)
  24. Matter of Yajure Hurtado, 29 I&N Dec. 216 (BIA 2025), Interim Decision #4125. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/media/1413311/dl?inline (in context)
  25. Labrada-Hechavarria v. U.S. Attorney General, Nos. 23-13664 and 24-10645 (11th Cir. February 23, 2026), unpublished per curiam opinion, govinfo, USCOURTS. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca11-24-10645/pdf/USCOURTS-ca11-24-10645-0.pdf (in context)
  26. Hernandez Alvarez v. Warden, Federal Detention Center Miami, Nos. 25-14065 and 25-14075 (11th Cir. May 6, 2026), published opinion. https://media.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/files/202514065.pdf (in context)
  27. U.S. Supreme Court, docket No. 26-104, Rhoney v. Barbosa da Cunha, and "Question Presented," accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/26-104.html and https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/qp/26-00104qp.pdf (in context)
  28. Executive Office for Immigration Review (EOIR), indexes of precedent decisions, volumes 29 and 30, reviewed November 11, 2026 (last precedent listed: 30 I&N Dec. 228, November 10, 2026). https://www.justice.gov/eoir/volume-29 and https://www.justice.gov/eoir/volume-30 (in context)

The Debate over the Cuban Adjustment Act

  1. Congressional Research Service (CRS), "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," report R40566, June 2, 2009, full copy at EveryCRSReport, accessed November 11, 2026. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20090602_R40566_5e40177b937bec01ee0cbfe8e8966e8c57e8c607.html (in context)
  2. Office of the Law Revision Counsel (OLRC), 8 U.S.C. § 1255, notes "Cuban Refugees: Adjustment of Status" (Pub. L. 104-208, div. C, title VI, § 606, September 30, 1996, 110 Stat. 3009-695) and text of Pub. L. 89-732, edition current through Pub. L. 119-138 (November 3, 2026), accessed November 11, 2026. https://uscode.house.gov/us/usc/t8/s1255/ (in context)
  3. Department of State, "Strengthening the Policy of the United States Toward Cuba," Federal Register, vol. 82, pp. 48875-48878, October 20, 2017, which reproduces the presidential memorandum NSPM-5 signed June 16, 2017, section 2. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2017-10-20/pdf/2017-22928.pdf (in context)
  4. White House, "Reissuance of and Amendments to National Security Presidential Memorandum 5 on Strengthening the Policy of the United States Toward Cuba," memorandum of June 30, 2025, section 2, Federal Register, vol. 90, p. 38913, August 12, 2025. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-08-12/pdf/2025-15338.pdf (in context)
  5. CRS, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 117th Congress," report R47246, December 28, 2022, full copy at EveryCRSReport. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/2022-12-28_R47246_d3f3e16cffca1a5f286b2e4f1260b555bf1389ba.html (in context)
  6. Sally Kestin, "Rubio bill would curb welfare abuses by Cuban immigrants," South Florida Sun Sentinel, January 12, 2016. https://www.sun-sentinel.com/2016/01/12/rubio-bill-would-curb-welfare-abuses-by-cuban-immigrants/ (in context)
  7. H.R. 391, Asylum Reform and Border Protection Act of 2017, introduced by Jason Chaffetz on January 10, 2017, section 20(c), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-115hr391ih/html/BILLS-115hr391ih.htm; S. 2192, SECURE Act of 2017, introduced by Chuck Grassley on December 5, 2017, section 2007(c), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-115s2192pcs/html/BILLS-115s2192pcs.htm; H.R. 4760, Securing America's Future Act of 2018, introduced by Bob Goodlatte on January 10, 2018, section 4405, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-115hr4760ih/html/BILLS-115hr4760ih.htm (in context)
  8. S. 1351, 103rd Congress, introduced by Harry Reid on August 4, 1993, section 202, text at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-103s1351is/html/BILLS-103s1351is.htm (in context)
  9. H.R. 3818, Ending Special National Origin-Based Immigration Programs for Cubans Act of 2015, introduced by Paul Gosar on October 23, 2015, sections 2-4, text at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-114hr3818ih/html/BILLS-114hr3818ih.htm (in context)
  10. Florida Legislature, HM 959 (2016), memorial filed by Frank Artiles, initial text and history, https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2016/959/BillText/Filed/PDF and https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2016/959; SM 1642 (2016), by René García, text passed by the Senate (e1) and history, https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2016/1642/BillText/e1/HTML and https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2016/1642 (in context)
  11. Sally Kestin, Megan O'Matz, and John Maines, with Tracey Eaton, "Plundering America: The Cuban Criminal Pipeline. Part I: Exploiting U.S. Laws," South Florida Sun Sentinel, January 8, 2015. https://interactive.sun-sentinel.com/plundering-america/ (in context)
  12. H.R. 2771 (introduced August 1, 2011), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-112hr2771ih/html/BILLS-112hr2771ih.htm; and H.R. 2831 (introduced August 30, 2011), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-112hr2831ih/html/BILLS-112hr2831ih.htm, both by David Rivera, texts at govinfo. (in context)
  13. Congress.gov, status records of the bills cited (last action, date of introduction, and number of cosponsors), accessed through the Library of Congress's official API on November 11, 2026. https://api.congress.gov/ (in context)
  14. John Maines and Sally Kestin, "Poll finds Cubans in Miami aghast at welfare abuses," South Florida Sun Sentinel, December 18, 2015. https://www.sun-sentinel.com/2015/12/18/poll-finds-cubans-in-miami-aghast-at-welfare-abuses/ (in context)
  15. CRS, "Cuba: Issues and Actions in the 114th Congress," report R43926, January 18, 2017, full copy at EveryCRSReport. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20170118_R43926_ce337f16f08ca419f8d735fc46499242b41b27e4.html (in context)
  16. Sally Kestin, Megan O'Matz, and William E. Gibson, "Plundering America. Part III: Congress reacts," South Florida Sun Sentinel, January 8, 2015. https://interactive.sun-sentinel.com/plundering-america/three.html (in context)
  17. South Florida Sun Sentinel, "Investigating the Cuban Adjustment Act," page collecting the 2015-2016 series and articles (reporting by Sally Kestin, Megan O'Matz, John Maines, and Tracey Eaton). https://interactive.sun-sentinel.com/cuban-adjustment-act/ (in context)
  18. S. 2441, Cuban Immigrant Work Opportunity Act of 2016, introduced by Marco Rubio on January 12, 2016, which amends title V of the Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980, text at govinfo, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-114s2441is/html/BILLS-114s2441is.htm; on H.R. 4247 and S. 2441, CRS, report R43926 (note 15), section "Legislative Activity." (in context)
  19. 22 U.S.C. § 6065(a) (requirements of a transition government) and § 6066 (requirements of a democratically elected government), sections 205 and 206 of Pub. L. 104-114, 2023 edition of the Code at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title22/html/USCODE-2023-title22-chap69A-subchapII-sec6065.htm and https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2023-title22/html/USCODE-2023-title22-chap69A-subchapII-sec6066.htm (in context)
  20. H.R. 4847, Correcting Unfair Benefits for Aliens Act of 2016 (CUBA Act of 2016), introduced by Blake Farenthold and Henry Cuellar on March 23, 2016, section 3, text at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-114hr4847ih/html/BILLS-114hr4847ih.htm (in context)
  21. H.R. 7521, 119th Congress, United States-Cuba Trade Act of 2026, introduced by James P. McGovern on February 12, 2026, section 2(e)(1) and (2)(B), text at govinfo, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr7521ih/html/BILLS-119hr7521ih.htm; status record (last action, referral to committees on February 12, 2026), https://www.govinfo.gov/bulkdata/BILLSTATUS/119/hr/BILLSTATUS-119hr7521.xml (in context)
  22. H.R. 3854, 103rd Congress, introduced by Mike Kopetski on February 10, 1994, text at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-103hr3854ih/html/BILLS-103hr3854ih.htm (in context)
  23. H.R. 5670, 109th Congress, introduced by Barney Frank on June 22, 2006, text at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-109hr5670ih/html/BILLS-109hr5670ih.htm (in context)
  24. S. 4983, Harry Reid Immigration Stabilization Act, 119th Congress, introduced by Bernie Moreno on July 15, 2026, sections 3 and 202, text at govinfo, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119s4983is/html/BILLS-119s4983is.htm, and status record (last action, July 15, 2026), https://www.govinfo.gov/bulkdata/BILLSTATUS/119/s/BILLSTATUS-119s4983.xml; office of Senator Bernie Moreno, "Moreno Reintroduces Harry Reid Bill to Eliminate Birthright Citizenship," press release of July 15, 2026, https://www.moreno.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/moreno-reintroduces-harry-reid-bill-to-eliminate-birthright-citizenship/ (in context)
  25. S. 4361, Border Act of 2024, introduced by Christopher Murphy on May 16, 2024, section 141 (new section 235B of the Immigration and Nationality Act), text at govinfo, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-118s4361pcs/html/BILLS-118s4361pcs.htm; cloture vote of May 23, 2024 (roll call vote 182), according to the congress.gov status record (see note 13). (in context)
  26. H.R. 4393, Dignity for Immigrants while Guarding our Nation to Ignite and Deliver the American Dream Act of 2025, introduced by María Elvira Salazar on July 15, 2025, section 1503(e), text at govinfo. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-119hr4393ih/html/BILLS-119hr4393ih.htm (in context)
  27. Barack Obama, "Statement on the Cuban Immigration Policy of the United States," January 12, 2017, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Barack Obama, 2016, book II, pp. 1701-1702. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PPP-2016-book2/pdf/PPP-2016-book2-doc-pg1701-2.pdf (in context)
  28. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "On-the-Record Press Call on Cuba Policy Announcement," with Ben Rhodes and Jeh Johnson, January 12, 2017. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/record-press-call-cuba-policy-announcement (in context)
  29. Government of the Republic of Cuba, "Declaración del Gobierno Revolucionario" [Statement of the Revolutionary Government], Havana, January 12, 2017, published by Cubadebate. Quotations are translated from Spanish. http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2017/01/12/declaracion-del-gobierno-revolucionario-4/ (in context)
  30. Randy Alonso Falcón and others, "Cuba denuncia estímulo de los EEUU a salidas ilegales y desordenadas" [Cuba denounces U.S. encouragement of illegal and disorderly departures], Cubadebate, November 1, 2022 (summary of the state television program Mesa Redonda). Quotations are translated from Spanish. http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2022/11/01/cuba-denuncia-estimulo-de-los-eeuu-a-salidas-ilegales-y-desordenadas-video/ (in context)

Data and charts

  1. Immigration and Naturalization Service, "1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service," tables 3 and 31 (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act, by period)
  2. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2024 yearbook tables 2, 3 and 7 (Excel) (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act, by period)
  3. Immigration and Naturalization Service, "1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service," tables 3 and 31 (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act)
  4. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Yearbook of Immigration Statistics" (index of yearbooks 1996-2024) (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act)
  5. Immigration and Naturalization Service / DHS, statistical yearbook for fiscal year 2012 (PDF) (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act)
  6. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2022 yearbook tables 2, 3d and 7d (Excel) (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act)
  7. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2023 yearbook table 7 (Excel) (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act)
  8. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2024 yearbook tables 2, 3 and 7 (Excel) (Green cards granted under the Cuban Adjustment Act)
  9. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters" (data page) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals at the southwest border)
  10. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "FY23 - FY26 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV, October 15, 2026) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals at the southwest border)
  11. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "FY20 - FY23 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV, November 7, 2023) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals at the southwest border)
  12. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters" (data page) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals nationwide)
  13. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "FY23 - FY26 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV, October 15, 2026) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals nationwide)
  14. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "FY20 - FY23 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV, November 7, 2023) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals nationwide)
  15. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "FY22 - FY25 Nationwide Encounters by Area of Responsibility" (CSV, October 15, 2025; cross-check) (CBP encounters with Cuban nationals nationwide)
  16. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," R44822, November 22, 2017, table 1 (CBP data) (Undocumented Cubans arriving at or between ports of entry)
  17. Jens Manuel Krogstad, Pew Research Center, "Surge in Cuban immigration to U.S. continued through 2016," January 13, 2017 (Undocumented Cubans arriving at or between ports of entry)
  18. U.S. Coast Guard, "Total Interdictions - Fiscal Year 1982 to Present," current as of January 19, 2016 (archived April 7, 2016) (Cubans interdicted at sea by the Coast Guard)
  19. U.S. Coast Guard, "Maritime Migrant Interdictions," current as of January 19, 2016 (archived December 14, 2016) (Cubans interdicted at sea by the Coast Guard)
  20. U.S. Coast Guard, "Coast Guard repatriates 55 people to Cuba," October 5, 2022 (Cubans interdicted at sea by the Coast Guard)
  21. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated January 8, 2025 (Cubans interdicted at sea by the Coast Guard)
  22. U.S. Coast Guard, "Coast Guard repatriates 16 aliens to Cuba," February 11, 2025 (Cubans interdicted at sea by the Coast Guard)
  23. U.S. Coast Guard, "Coast Guard repatriates 5 aliens to Cuba," May 20, 2025 (Cubans interdicted at sea by the Coast Guard)
  24. Jorge Duany, "The Cuban Exodus: Growing Complexity & Diversity," Cuban Research Institute, Florida International University, slide 4 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  25. FIU Institute for Cuban Studies, "Brief History of Cuban Migration" (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  26. Guillermo Grenier, "The Establishment of the Cuban American Community," Cuban Research Institute, FIU, 2007 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  27. Heritage Foundation, Backgrounder No. 124, "The Cuban Refugee Problem in Perspective, 1959-1980," July 18, 1980 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  28. Operation Pedro Pan Group, "History" (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  29. University of Miami Libraries, "Operation Pedro Pan Collections Guide" (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  30. University of Miami Libraries, "In Search of Freedom" exhibit, "Exodus from Cuba" (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  31. Stephen Webbe, "Flight from Cuba," The Christian Science Monitor, May 8, 1980 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  32. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XXXII, document 308 (editorial note) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  33. U.S. Coast Guard, "Mariel Boatlift," Alien Migrant Interdiction Office (archived November 3, 2008) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  34. U.S. Coast Guard, "Alien Migrant Interdiction" (archived January 23, 2009) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  35. Congressional Research Service, "Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends," R40566, June 2, 2009 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  36. Oscar Corral and Andrés Viglucci, "Mariel: From turmoil to triumph," Miami Herald, April 3, 2005 (copy at latinamericanstudies.org) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  37. U.S. General Accounting Office, "Cuba: U.S. Response to the 1994 Cuban Migration Crisis," NSIAD-95-211, September 18, 1995 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  38. GlobalSecurity.org, "Operation Able Vigil" (reproduces the Coast Guard fact sheet) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  39. U.S. Coast Guard, "Total Interdictions - Fiscal Year 1982 to Present," current as of January 19, 2016 (archived April 7, 2016) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  40. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress," R44822, November 22, 2017, table 1 (CBP data) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  41. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "Nationwide Encounters" (data page) (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  42. Congressional Research Service, "Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview," IF10045, updated January 8, 2025 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  43. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, "CBP Releases December 2024 Monthly Update," January 14, 2025 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  44. DHS, "Termination of Parole Processes for Cubans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Venezuelans," 90 Fed. Reg. 13611, March 25, 2025 (The major waves of Cuban migration)
  45. Sharon R. Ennis, Merarys Ríos-Vargas and Nora G. Albert, "The Hispanic Population: 2010," 2010 Census Briefs C2010BR-04, May 2011, table 1 (Population of Cuban origin in the United States)
  46. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 2016-2020 5-year, table B03001 (Population of Cuban origin in the United States)
  47. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 2025 1-year, table B03001 (summary file) (Population of Cuban origin in the United States)
  48. Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, "Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850 to 2000," U.S. Census Bureau, Working Paper No. 81, February 2006, tables 3 and 4 (Cuban-born population living in the United States)
  49. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 2010 1-year, table B05006 (Cuban-born population living in the United States)
  50. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 2016-2020 5-year, table B05006 (Cuban-born population living in the United States)
  51. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 2025 1-year, table B05006 (summary file) (Cuban-born population living in the United States)
  52. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2022 yearbook tables 2, 3d and 7d (Excel) (Lawful permanent residents whose last residence was Cuba, by decade)
  53. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2024 yearbook tables 2, 3 and 7 (Excel) (Lawful permanent residents whose last residence was Cuba, by decade)
  54. Immigration and Naturalization Service, "1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service," tables 3 and 31 (New lawful permanent residents born in Cuba)
  55. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Yearbook of Immigration Statistics" (index of yearbooks 1996-2024) (New lawful permanent residents born in Cuba)
  56. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "2004 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics" (tables page) (New lawful permanent residents born in Cuba)
  57. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "2013 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics" (tables page) (New lawful permanent residents born in Cuba)
  58. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2022 yearbook tables 2, 3d and 7d (Excel) (New lawful permanent residents born in Cuba)
  59. DHS Office of Homeland Security Statistics, "Lawful Permanent Residents," fiscal year 2024 yearbook tables 2, 3 and 7 (Excel) (New lawful permanent residents born in Cuba)